Monday, April 18, 2022

THE STRANGE CASE OF TUT'ANKHAMUN’S MUMMY

 


Tut'ankhamun was the son of Akhenaten, the heretic pharaoh who abandoned ancient Egypt’s traditional polytheist religion in favor of a new monotheistic cult centered around the sun god Aten. The shift wasn’t embraced by all, and the cult collapsed after his death, with Tutankhamun (or his Vizier) reverting to the old tradition as soon as he ascended the throne around the age of nine. 

Tut'ankhamun was a sickly boy, suffering from scoliosis, a partially cleft palate, a flat right foot with a missing phalange, and a necrosis in the bones of his left foot, which must have been painful because he used a cane to walk – and there were 130 walking sticks in his tomb. He had also been repeatedly infected with the most severe strains of malaria, and must have suffered a hard fall, because one of his legs had an old compound fracture which had been tended to with balms. He died at 19, though we don’t quite know why. An initial theory was that he suffered a devastating injury – since his skull was crashed and some of his ribs were missing, but more recent testing showed that these injuries happened after his death, maybe caused by an unprofessional embalmer – or a professional one trying to make him look like Osiris, the god of the afterlife.


The last theory is supported by an unusual painting in Tut'ankhamun’s tomb depicting him as Osiris, plus a few embalming peculiarities like a dark liquid covering his body, which could have been an attempt to make him look completely black; an unusual arm posture which was often used to depict Osiris; a missing heart (and the scarab that would normally replace it), which recalls the story of Osiris being cut to pieces by his brother Seth who then buried his heart; a strange thoracic incision which could have been a honorary mark reinforcing the previous story; and, most peculiar of all, an erect member which stood upright at a 90-degree angle. No other mummies were embalmed with such an erection, and the most reasonable explanation seems to be that it was propped in that position as a way to evoke the fertility of Osiris. 


Why were they trying to turn King Tut into Osiris? The leading theory is that it was symbolic of the country’s return to the pre-Akhenaten cults, which makes sense, considering that in ancient Egypt the king was believed to be the god Horus during his reign, and Osiris after his death.

In a delicate time of religious turmoil, the embalmers may have  prepared the body in such a way so as to literally emphasize the divinity of the king and his identification with Osiris – hoping the transmutation would reclaim his family’s lost credentials.


The photo featured in this post was taken in 1922 by Howard Carter, the discoverer of the tomb and the man who first unraveled Tutankhamun’s  mummy. The member is clearly visible, in fact looking bigger than expected since the embalming salts usually shrunk it, though it was missing when the re-wrapped mummy was x-rayed in 1968. Many suspected it had been stolen, but it was found again in 2005 when the mummy underwent a CT scan, buried in the sand surrounding it together with a few missing bone fragments and a couple of digits.




The Magnificent Art Of Ancient Iran


đŸ“¯đŸ‘‘đŸ“¯A late Sasanian silver bowl with the Great King * SHAPUR * a banquet with musicians, late 6th  century

Description

Inner part of a two-piece bowl with high quality chasing work. The outer, smooth part, which covered the cavities created by chasing on the underside of the inner part, is not preserved. In the centre, the crowned Great King with beard and long curly hair, sitting with his feet folded underneath him on a throne flanked in front by rams. The crown with stepped circlet, the central pommel flanked by wings and fluttering bands at the sides. The pleating of the upper part of the robe and the trousers finely wrought, as well as the straps of the sandal on the left leg, positioned in front. The fabric over the hips with vertical decorative rows of circles, triangles and diamonds. Circular, decorative pieces with flowers on the shoulder. A chain draped crosswise over the chest, with a central medallion depicting a griffin. The left hand, bent downwards, holding the hilt of the sword lying horizontally over the left thigh. The right hand, bent upwards, holds a drinking bowl with spread fingers, into which a maidservant is pouring a drink with a jug. From the other side, a second maidservant approaches, serving a bird on a tray. In front of the throne, another tray with two boars' heads and, in front of this, a tray with a pyramid of round fruits or pastries.

Above the king, two winged female genii float with fluttering robes, each draped over one shoulder, with garlands in their hands. In the foreground, four female musicians, from left to right: a standing flute player, then, with legs folded under, a harpist, a lute player and a woman with a tambourine. The maidservants and musicians are all barefoot. Their robes and elaborate hairstyles with chignon on the crown of the head are painstakingly elaborated with numerous details. A rapport of heart-shaped leaves bordered by two incised lines in the margin.

Despite its strict stylisation, the composition appears decidedly animated. The well-proportioned bodies and the finely modelled faces of all the protagonists lend the scene a solemn atmosphere yet, at the same time, a sensual aura. A masterpiece of Sasanian silver toreutics with a rarely encountered complexity of the depicted motifs and the highest artistic quality. 

Dark, slightly spotty patina. Light incrustations and minimal traces of oxidation, especially on the chiselled edges of the figures. The interplay of these factors on the surface gives the object the charm of a dignified antiquity.

Diameter 38.3 cm. Height 7 cm. Weight 1935 g. Includes the results of an alloy analysis carried out by the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie, Mannheim by means of portable XRF.




Sunday, April 17, 2022

Manusamhita

 āĻ…āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻŦ'āϞে āĻ•ুāĻ–্āϝাāϤ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻĒ্āϰāĻ•ৃāϤাāϰ্āĻĨে āωāĻĻাāϰāĻ­াāĻŦāύা āĻ“ āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ•āϤাāϰ āĻāĻ• āϏোāĻĒাāύ - āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻŦিāĻļ্āϞেāώāĻŖ 

.........................................................................


āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύ āĻ­াāϰāϤী⧟ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāϏāĻŽূāĻšেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āϏāϰ্āĻŦাāϧিāĻ• āĻŦিāϤāϰ্āĻ•িāϤ āĻāĻŦং āύিāύ্āĻĻিāϤ āύিঃāϏāύ্āĻĻেāĻšে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা l āϚāϰāĻŽ āϜাāϤিāĻ­েāĻĻ āĻ“ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝ āϝেāĻŽāύ āĻāχ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨāĻ–াāύিāϤে āĻĒ্āϰāĻļ্āϰ⧟ āĻĒে⧟েāĻ›ে āϤেāĻŽāύāχ āĻŦিāϏ্āϤাāϰ āϞাāĻ­ āĻ•āϰেāĻ›ে āύাāϰীāĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦেāώ l āĻ…āϏংāĻ–্āϝ āĻļ্āϞোāĻ•ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻĢāϞিāϤ āύিāϰ্āĻŽāĻŽ āύিāĻĻাāϰুāĻŖ āĻ…āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻŦিāϧাāύ l āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύ āĻšিāύ্āĻĻুāϏāĻŽাāϜ āĻ›িāϞ āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ•āĻ­াāĻŦে āωāϚ্āϚāύীāϚ āϜাāϤিāĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύে āĻŦিāĻ­āĻ•্āϤ āĻāĻŦং āϞিāĻ™্āĻ—āĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝāĻŽā§Ÿ - āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāχ āĻāϰ āϏāĻŦāĻĨেāĻ•ে āĻŦ⧜ āĻĒ্āϰāĻŽাāĻŖ l āĻāχ āϧাāϰāĻŖাāĻ•ে āĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤা āĻĻি⧟ে āϰāϚিāϤ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে āĻ•ā§ŸেāĻ• āϏāĻšāϏ্āϰ āϰāϚāύা l  āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āĻŦাāĻŦাāϏাāĻšেāĻŦ āφāĻŽ্āĻŦেāĻĻāĻ•āϰেāϰ āύেāϤৃāϤ্āĻŦে ⧧⧝⧍⧭ āϏাāϞেāϰ ⧍ā§Ģ āĻļে āĻĄিāϏেāĻŽ্āĻŦāϰ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻĒ⧜াāύো āĻšā§Ÿ, āϝেāϟি "āĻŽāύুāϏ্āĻŽৃāϤি āĻĻāĻšāύ āĻĻিāĻŦāϏ" āύাāĻŽে āĻĒāϰিāϚিāϤ l āĻāϟি āĻ›িāϞ āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻĒ্āϰāϤীāĻ•ি āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻŦাāĻĻ āĻšিāύ্āĻĻু āϏāĻŽাāϜেāϰ āĻ…āύ্āϤāϰ্āύিāĻšিāϤ āĻ…āϏ্āĻĒৃāĻļ্āϝāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে āĻāĻŦং āĻāχ āĻŦিāĻļ্āĻŦাāϏ āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϝে  āωāϚ্āϚāύীāϚ āϜাāϤিāĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύেāϰ āĻ­āϰāĻ•েāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āύ্āϝāϏ্āϤ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ l āϚāϰāĻŽ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ্āϝāĻŦাāĻĻ, āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰāĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦেāώ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ•āĻ োāϰ āĻĒিāϤৃāϤাāύ্āϤ্āϰিāĻ•āϤা āĻāχ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨেāϰ āĻŽূāϞ āωāĻĒāϜীāĻŦ্āϝ āĻšāĻ“ā§Ÿা⧟ āϏ্āĻŦাāϧীāύ āĻ“ āωāĻĻাāϰāĻĒāύ্āĻĨীāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āĻāĻ•াংāĻļেāϰ āύিāĻ•āϟে āĻāχ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨāĻ–াāύি āĻāĻ•āĻĒ্āϰāĻ•াāϰ āĻŦিāώāϏ্āĻŦāϰূāĻĒ l "āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āϏāϰ্āĻŦāύাāĻļা" āĻāϰāĻ•āĻŽ āĻāĻ•āϟি āϧাāϰāĻŖা āϏāĻŽাāϜেāϰ āĻāĻ•াংāĻļেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āφāĻŽূāϞ āĻĒ্āϰোāĻĨিāϤ l 'āĻŽাāύāĻŦāϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ…-āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• ' - āϚূ⧜াāύ্āϤ āĻāĻ• āφāϤ্āĻŽāĻŦিāϰোāϧিāϤা, āϝা āĻāĻ• āϰāĻšāϏ্āϝ! āĻāχ āϰāĻšāϏ্āϝেāϰ āωāύ্āĻŽোāϚāύে āφāĻŽাāĻĻেāϰ āĻĒ্āϰāĻŦেāĻļ āĻ•āϰāϤেāχ āĻšāĻŦে āϤāĻĨাāĻ•āĻĨিāϤ āύিāώিāĻĻ্āϧ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ l āĻāχ āĻĒāĻĨ āĻĻীāϰ্āϘ āĻāĻŦং āĻ•ু⧟াāĻļাāϚ্āĻ›āύ্āύ l āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦāϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤিāĻļূāύ্āϝ, āϝুāĻ•্āϤিāύিāώ্āĻ āĻŦিāϚাāϰ āĻ•েāĻŦāϞ āφāĻŽাāĻĻেāϰ āĻĒāĻĨ āĻĻেāĻ–াāϤে āĻĒাāϰে l āĻ…āύ্āϝāĻĨা⧟ āφāĻŽāϰা āĻĒāĻĨāĻ­্āϰāώ্āϟ āĻšāĻŦো āĻ•ৃāϤিāĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤিāϰ āĻ•ু⧟াāĻļাāϘেāϰা āĻĒāĻĨে l āύিāώিāĻĻ্āϧ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨেāϰ āĻ…āύ্āĻĻāϰে āĻĒ্āϰāĻŦেāĻļেāϰ āĻ…āĻĻāĻŽ্āϝ āĻ•ৌāϤূāĻšāϞ āĻāĻŦং āĻĒুāύঃāĻŦিāϚাāϰেāϰ āφāĻ•াāĻ™্āĻ–া āĻĒাāĻ āĻ• āϝāĻĻি āĻ…āύ্āϤāϰে āĻāĻ•াāύ্āϤāχ āĻ…āύুāĻ­āĻŦ āĻ•āϰেāύ, āĻĻীāϰ্āϘ āĻāχ āĻĒāĻĨেāϰ āϏāĻšāϝাāϤ্āϰী āϤিāύি āĻšāϤেāχ āĻĒাāϰেāύ l


āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύāĻ­াāϰāϤে āĻāĻ•াāϧিāĻ• āĻŽāύুāϰ āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āφāĻ›ে l āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāĻ•াāϰ āĻ“ āχāϤিāĻšাāϏāĻŦিāĻĻāĻĻেāϰ āĻŽāϤে "āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা" -⧟ āωāϞ্āϞিāĻ–িāϤ āĻŽāύু āĻšāϞেāύ āϏ্āĻŦāϝ়āĻŽ্āĻ­ুāĻŦ āĻŽāύু l āĻŽāĻšাāĻ­াāϰāϤেāĻ“ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āφāĻ›ে l (Bhandarkar, āĻĒৃ ā§Ģā§§-ā§Ģā§­)  āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ…āϤি āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύ āĻāĻŦং āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϏāĻŽূāĻšেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻāϟি āĻĒ্āϰāϧাāύ āĻāĻŦং āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύāϤāĻŽ l āĻĒāϰāĻŦāϰ্āϤী āĻĒāϰ্āϝা⧟ে āĻŽāĻšāϰ্āώি āĻ­ৃāĻ—ু āĻāĻŦং āϤাঁāϰ āĻļিāώ্āϝāĻ—āĻŖ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা ( āĻŽāύুāĻŦাāĻ•্āϝ ) āϏংāϝোāϜিāϤ āĻāĻŦং āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖিāϤ āĻ•āϰেāύ l (āĻŽুāĻ–োāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ āωāĻĒেāύ্āĻĻ্āϰāύাāĻĨ, āĻŽুāĻ–āĻŦāύ্āϧ  )  āĻŽāύুāώ্āϝ āϜীāĻŦāύেāϰ āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰিāĻ• āĻāĻŦং āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ• āĻĒ্āϰা⧟ āϏāĻ•āϞ āϏূāĻ•্āώ্āĻŽাāϤিāϏূāĻ•্āώ্āĻŽ āĻ…ংāĻļāĻ•ে āĻ›ুঁ⧟ে āĻ—েāĻ›ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা l āϏāĻŽাāϜে āύাāϰীāϰ āϏ্āĻĨাāύ (āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻ“ āϏ্āĻŦাāϧীāύāϤা),  āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ“ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা, āĻĻāύ্āĻĄāύীāϤি, āύীāϤিāύৈāϤিāĻ•āϤা, āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āϏাāĻŽ্āϝ āĻ“ āϏ্āĻŦাāϧীāύāϤা āĻŽূāϞāϤ: āĻāχāϏāĻ•āϞ āĻŦিāώ⧟ে āφāĻŽāϰা āϏীāĻŽাāĻŦāĻĻ্āϧ āĻĨাāĻ•āĻŦো l āĻ•াāϰāύ āĻāχ āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻŦিāώ⧟āĻ•ে āĻ•েāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻ•āϰেāχ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āϝাāĻŦāϤী⧟ āĻŦিāϤāϰ্āĻ• āĻ“ āύিāύ্āĻĻাāϰ āĻā§œ l


āϞিāĻ™্āĻ—āĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝ āĻāĻŦং āύাāϰীāĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦেāώ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে āĻ…āϤি āĻĒ্āϰāϚāϞিāϤ āĻāĻŦং āĻĒ্āϰāϧাāύ āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻ…āĻ­িāϝোāĻ— l āĻŦাāϏ্āϤāĻŦে, āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āύাāϰীāϰ āϏ্āĻĨাāύ āĻ…āϤিāωāϚ্āϚে l āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰিāĻ• āĻšāϤে āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ•, āϜীāĻŦāύেāϰ āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āύাāϰীāϰ āϏāĻŽাāύাāϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤ l āĻ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϰ্āĻ•ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āύিāĻŽ্āύāϰূāĻĒ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻĒ্āϰāĻŖিāϧাāύāϝোāĻ—্āϝ l


* āύাāϰীāϰ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϤ্āϤিāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ


āĻŦāύ্āϧ্āϝা āϏ্āϤ্āϰী, āĻĒুāϤ্āϰāĻšীāύা, āĻĒ্āϰোāώিāϤāĻ­āϰ্āϤৃāĻ•া, āϏāĻĒিāύ্āĻĄ āϰāĻšিāϤা, āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻŦ্āϰāϤা, āĻŦিāϧāĻŦা āĻ“ āϰোāĻ—িāύী āĻāĻĻেāϰ āϧāύ āĻ…āύাāĻĨ āĻŦাāϞāĻ•েāϰ āϧāύেāϰ āĻŽāϤোāχ āϰাāϜা āϰāĻ•্āώা āĻ•āϰāĻŦেāύ l (āĻŽāύু: ā§Ž/ā§¨ā§Ž)


āϧāύāĻŦিāĻ­াāĻ—েāϰ āϏāĻŽā§Ÿে āϝāĻĻি āĻ…āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšিāϤা āĻ­āĻ—িāύী āĻĨাāĻ•ে, āĻĒ্āϰāϤ্āϝেāĻ• āĻ­্āϰাāϤা āύিāϜ āύিāϜ āĻ…ংāĻļ āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϚাāϰāĻ­াāĻ—েāϰ āĻāĻ• āĻ­াāĻ— āĻ…ংāĻļ āĻ…āĻŦāĻļ্āϝāχ āĻĻেāĻŦে l āϝিāύি āĻāχ āĻĻাāύে āĻ…āύিāϚ্āĻ›ুāĻ•, āϏে āϧāϰ্āĻŽāϤ: āĻĒāϤিāϤ āĻšāĻŦে l (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/ā§§ā§§ā§Ž)


āϝেāĻŽāϤ āφāϤ্āĻŽ āĻ“ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰেāϤে āĻĒ্āϰāĻ­েāĻĻ āύেāχ, āϏেāχāϰূāĻĒ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰেāϰ āϏāĻŽাāύ  āĻĻুāĻšিāϤা ; āĻ…āϤāĻāĻŦ āĻĒিāϤাāϰ āφāϤ্āĻŽāϏ্āĻŦāϰূāĻĒ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰিāĻ•া āĻŽৃāϤ āĻ…āĻĒুāϤ্āϰāĻ• āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āϧāύ āĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖ āĻ•āϰāĻŦে l ( āĻŽāύু : ⧝/ā§§ā§Šā§Ļ)


āĻŽাāϤাāϰ āϝে āϧāύ āϤা āϤাāϰ āĻ•ুāĻŽাāϰী āĻ•āύ্āϝাāϰāχ āĻĒ্āϰাāĻĒ্āϝ l āĻĒুāϤ্āϰāĻšীāύেāϰ āϝে āϧāύ āϤা āϤাāϰ āĻĻৌāĻšিāϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻĒ্āϰাāĻĒ্āϝ l (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/ā§§ā§Šā§§)


āϏ্āϤ্āϰীāϧāύ (āύাāϰীāϰ āϏংāϰāĻ•্āώিāϤ āϧāύ ) -āĻāϰ āϏাāĻšাāϝ্āϝে āĻĒāϰিāĻŦাāϰেāϰ āĻĒুāϰুāώেāϰ āϜীāĻŦিāĻ•া āύিāϰ্āĻŦাāĻš āĻ•িāĻŽ্āĻŦা āφāĻŽোāĻĻ-āĻŦিāĻšাāϰে āĻ–āϰāϚ āύিāύ্āĻĻিāϤ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāϰূāĻĒে āĻŦিāĻŦেāϚ্āϝ l (āĻŽāύু : ā§Š/ā§Ģ⧍)


āωāĻĒāϰিāωāĻ•্āϤ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟāϤāχ āĻāϟা āĻĒ্āϰāϤী⧟āĻŽাāύ āĻšā§Ÿ āϝে, āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ…āύুāϝা⧟ী āύাāϰীāĻĻেāϰ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϤ্āϤিāϰ āωāĻĒāϰ āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে āĻāĻŦং āϤা āϝেāύ āϏāϤāϰ্āĻ•āϤাāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϰāĻ•্āώিāϤ āĻšā§Ÿ, āϏেāχ āĻšেāϤু āωāĻĒāϝুāĻ•্āϤ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ“ āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে l 'āύাāϰীāϰ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϤ্āϤিāϤে āύাāϰীāϰāχ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ' - āĻāĻ•āĻĨাāĻ“ āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰ āĻŦিāĻļেāώে āĻĒুāϤ্āϰ āĻ…āĻĒেāĻ•্āώা āĻ•ুāĻŽাāϰী āĻ•āύ্āϝাāϰ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϤ্āϤিāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰāĻ•ে āĻ…āϧিāĻ•āϤāϰ āĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤা āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āφāϰāĻ“ āϞāĻ•্āώ্āϝāĻŖী⧟, āĻĒুāϤ্āϰ āĻ“ āĻ•āύ্āϝা - āωāϭ⧟ āϏāύ্āϤাāύāĻ•ে āϏāĻŽāϜ্āĻžাāύ āĻ•āϰা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l


(* āĻ…āĻĒুāϤ্āϰāĻ• āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤি āĻ•āύ্āϝাāϏāĻŽ্āĻĒ্āϰāĻĻাāύ āĻ•াāϞে  - 'āĻāχ āĻ•āύ্āϝাāϤে āϝে āĻĒুāϤ্āϰ āϜāύ্āĻŽাāĻŦে āϏে āφāĻŽাāϰ āĻļ্āϰাāĻĻ্āϧāĻĒিāύ্āĻĄেāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰী āĻšāĻŦে'', āĻāĻŽāύ āĻ…āĻ™্āĻ—ীāĻ•াāϰ āĻ•āϰāϞে, āϏেāχ āĻ•āύ্āϝাāĻ•ে āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§Ÿ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰিāĻ•া ) (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/⧧⧍⧭)


* āύাāϰীāϰ āĻļিāĻ•্āώাāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āύিāĻ•āϟ āĻšāϤে āĻļিāĻ•্āώা āĻ…āϰ্āϜāύেāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ“ āφāĻ›ে l  āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϏāĻŽাāϜে āύাāϰীāĻĻেāϰ āĻļিāĻ•্āώাāĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖেāϰ āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻ›িāϞ l āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āĻŽāύ্āϤ্āϰāĻĻ্āϰāώ্āϟ্āϰা āĻ‹āώিāĻĻেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻŽāĻšিāϞা āĻ‹āώিāĻ“ āϰ⧟েāĻ›েāύ(āĻ‹āώিāĻ•া )। āĻ…āĻĨāϰ্āĻŦāĻŦেāĻĻ āĻŦāϞেāĻ›ে, “āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāϚāϰ্āϝেāύ āĻ•āύ্āϝা āϝুāĻŦাāύং āĻŦিāύ্āĻĻāϤে āĻĒāϤিāĻŽ্।” (ā§§ā§§.ā§Ģ.ā§§ā§Ž) āĻāχ āĻŦিāϧাāύেāϰ āύিāĻšিāϤাāϰ্āĻĨ āĻāχ āϝে, āĻāĻ•āϜāύ  āϝুāĻŦāĻ• āϝেāĻŽāύ āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāϚāϰ্āϝ āĻļেāώ āĻ•āϰে āĻŦিāĻĻুāώী āĻ•āύ্āϝাāĻ•ে āĻŦিāϝ়ে āĻ•āϰāĻŦে āĻ িāĻ• āϤেāĻŽāύি āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āϝুāĻŦāϤীāĻ“ āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāϚāϰ্āϝ āĻļেāώ āĻ•āϰে āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦাāύ āϝুāĻŦāĻ•āĻ•ে āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽীāϰূāĻĒে āĻ—্āϰāĻšāύ āĻ•āϰāĻŦে। āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟāϤāχ āĻļিāĻ•্āώা āĻ…āϰ্āϜāύে āĻ•োāύ āϞিāĻ™্āĻ—āĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝ āĻ•āϰা āĻšā§Ÿāύি l āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϏāĻŽাāϜে āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖ āĻļিāĻ•্āώাāĻĻাāύāĻ“ āĻ•āϰāϤেāύ (āĻŦāύ্āĻĻ্āϝোāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ (āĻĄ:) āωāĻĻ⧟āϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ, āĻĒৃ: ā§Ģ⧍ - ā§Ģā§Ģ)  āĻļ্āϰী āĻ…āĻŽāϰ্āϤ্āϝ āϏেāύ āϤাঁāϰ ' The Argumentative Indian' āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨে āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϏāĻŽাāϜে āύাāϰীāĻļিāĻ•্āώা āĻ“ āύাāϰীāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻŦিāώ⧟ে āϏংāĻ•্āώেāĻĒে āφāϞোāĻ•āĻĒাāϤ āĻ•āϰেāĻ›েāύ l (āϏেāύ āĻ…āĻŽāϰ্āϤ্āϝ, āĻĒৃ: ā§­ - ⧝ )


* āύিāϜ āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻš āĻŦিāώ⧟ে āύাāϰীāϰ āϏ্āĻŦাāϧীāύāϤা


āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻšীāύ āĻĒাāϤ্āϰে āĻ•āύ্āϝাāĻĻাāύ āĻ…āĻĒেāĻ•্āώা āφāĻŽৃāϤ্āϝু āĻ•āύ্āϝাāϰ āĻĒিāϤৃāĻ—ৃāĻšে āĻŦāϏāĻŦাāϏ āĻļ্āϰে⧟ l (āĻŽāύু āϏংāĻšিāϤা: ⧝/ā§Žā§¯)


āĻ•āύ্āϝা āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšāϝোāĻ—্āϝা āĻšā§Ÿে āωāĻ āϞে āύিāϜেāϰ āϏāĻĻৃāĻļ āĻĒāϤি āύিāϜেāχ āĻŽāύোāύীāϤ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰে l (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/⧝ā§Ļ)


āĻĒিāϤা āϝāĻĻি āĻ•āύ্āϝা āĻĻাāύ āύা āĻ•āϰে, āĻ•āύ্āϝা āύিāϜেāχ āϝāĻĻি āĻĒāϤি āĻŦāϰāĻŖ āĻ•āϰে āύে⧟, āϤাāĻ•ে āĻŦা āϤাāϰ āĻĒāϤিāĻ•ে āĻ•োāύ āĻĒাāĻĒāχ āϏ্āĻĒāϰ্āĻļ āĻ•āϰেāύা l (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/⧝⧧)


āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟ āϝে, āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽী āύিāϰ্āĻŦাāϚāύে āύাāϰীāϰ āϏ্āĻŦাāϧীāύāϤা āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤ , āϏেāχ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰāĻŦিāĻļেāώে ( āωāĻĒāϝুāĻ•্āϤ āĻ—ুāĻŖāϝুāĻ•্āϤ āĻĒাāϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻ…āĻ­াāĻŦে ) āύাāϰীāϰ āĻ…āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšিāϤ āĻĨাāĻ•াāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰāĻ•েāĻ“ āĻŽāϰ্āϝাāĻĻা āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l


*  āύাāϰীāϰ āĻĒুāύāϰ্āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšে āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ


āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽী āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻ•াāϰ্āϝেāϰ āϜāύ্āϝ āĻŦিāĻĻেāĻļে āĻ—েāϞে āϤাāϰ āϜāύ্āϝ āφāϟ āĻŦā§ŽāϏāϰ āĻĒ্āϰāϤীāĻ•্āώা āĻ•āϰāĻŦে, āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϰ āϜāύ্āϝ āĻ—েāϞে āĻ›ā§Ÿ āĻŦā§ŽāϏāϰ, āϝāĻļ āĻ…āϰ্āĻĨ āĻŦা āĻ•াāĻŽোāĻĒāĻ­োāĻ—েāϰ āϜāύ্āϝ āĻ—েāϞে āϤিāύ āĻŦā§ŽāϏāϰ āĻĒ্āϰāϤীāĻ•্āώা āĻ•āϰāĻŦে l (āĻŽāύু : ⧝/ā§­ā§Ŧ)


āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽী āĻĒāϰিāϤ্āϝাāĻ•্āϤা āĻŦা āĻŽৃāϤāĻ­āϰ্āϤ্āϤৃāĻ•া āϝে āύাāϰী āϏ্āĻŦেāϚ্āĻ›া⧟ āĻ…āύ্āϝāĻĒুāϰুāώেāϰ āĻ­াāϰ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŦ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•াāϰ āĻ•'āϰে āύি⧟েāĻ›ে, āϤাāϰ āĻ—āϰ্āĻ­ে āĻ‰ā§ŽāĻĒাāĻĻিāϤ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰ āĻ‰ā§ŽāĻĒাāĻĻāĻ•েāϰ āĻĒৌāύāϰ্āĻ­āĻŦ āĻĒুāϤ্āϰ āĻŦāϞে āĻĒāϰিāϚিāϤ āĻšāĻŦে l ( āĻŽāύু : ⧝/ā§§ā§­ā§Ģ)


āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻĻুāϟি āϜাāύাāύ āĻĻে⧟, āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰāĻŦিāĻļেāώে āύাāϰীāϰ āĻĒুāύāϰ্āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻš āϏāĻŽāϰ্āĻĨāύ āĻ•āϰে l āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āψāĻļ্āĻŦāϰāϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϏাāĻ—āϰ āĻŦāϞেāĻ›েāύ, "... Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya and Vasishtha, have admitted the remarriage of a woman, on the degradation, impotence, insanity, or the death, of her husband.' ( āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϏাāĻ—āϰ, āĻĒৃ : ā§­ā§§) āϰাāĻŽা⧟āĻŖ āĻāĻŦং āĻŽāĻšাāĻ­াāϰāϤে āĻŦিāϧāĻŦাāĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšেāϰ āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āφāĻ›ে l (āϐ ) āĻ•ৌāϟিāϞ্āϝেāϰ āĻ…āϰ্āĻĨāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻŽāϤেāĻ“ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰāĻŦিāĻļেāώে āύাāϰীāϰ āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšāĻŦিāϚ্āĻ›েāĻĻ, āĻĒুāύāϰ্āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻš āĻāĻŦং āĻŦিāϧāĻŦাāĻŦিāĻŦাāĻšেāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻ›িāϞ l (āĻĄ: āĻ…āύিāϞ āϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦāϏু, āĻĒৃ :ā§§ā§Ģ-ā§§ā§­) āĻŦেāĻĻে āĻŦিāϧāĻŦা āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻš āϏāĻŽāϰ্āĻĨāύী⧟ l (āĻŦāύ্āĻĻোāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ (āĻĄ : āωāĻĻ⧟āϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ , āĻĒৃ : ā§Ģā§Ē)


āĻ— ) āϏংāϏাāϰে āύাāϰীāϰ āĻļেāώ্āĻ āϤ্āĻŦ


āϏāĻšāϏ্āϰ āĻĒিāϤাāϰ āϚে⧟ে āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āĻŽাāϤাāϰ āĻ—ৌāϰāĻŦ āĻŦেāĻļি l (āĻŽāύু : ⧍/ā§§ā§Ēā§Ģ)


āϝে āĻĒāϰিāĻŦাāϰে āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖ āϏāĻŽ্āĻŽাāύিāϤ, āϏেāĻ–াāύে āĻĻেāĻŦāĻ—āĻŖ āĻĒ্āϰāϏāύ্āύ āĻĨাāĻ•েāύ; āϝেāĻ–াāύে āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āϏāĻŽাāĻĻাāϰ āύেāχ, āϏেāĻ–াāύে āϝāϜ্āĻžাāĻĻি āĻ•্āϰি⧟াāĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āϏāĻŽāϏ্āϤāχ āĻŦ্āϝāϰ্āĻĨ āĻšā§Ÿে āϝা⧟ l (āĻŽāύু: ā§Š/ā§Ģā§Ŧ)


āϝে āĻĒāϰিāĻŦাāϰেāϰ āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖ āϏāϰ্āĻŦাāĻĻাāχ āĻĻুঃāĻ–িāϤ āϏেāχ āĻ•ুāϞ āĻŦিāύāώ্āϟ āĻšā§Ÿ, āĻ…āύ্āϝāĻĻিāĻ•ে āϝে āĻĒāϰিāĻŦাāϰে āύাāϰীāĻ—āĻŖ āϏুāĻ–ী āϏেāχ āĻ•ুāϞেāϰ āĻļ্āϰীāĻŦৃāĻĻ্āϧি āϘāϟে l (āĻŽāύু : ā§Š/ā§Ģā§­)


āϏ্āϤ্āϰী āĻ—ৃāĻšেāϰ āĻŽāĻšোāĻĒāĻ•াāϰিāĻŖী, āĻĻীāĻĒ্āϤিāϏ্āĻŦāϰূāĻĒা, āĻĒূāϜাāϰāϝোāĻ—্āϝা l āϏুāϤāϰাং, āĻ—ৃāĻšে āĻļ্āϰী āĻāĻŦং āϏ্āϤ্āϰী - āĻāĻĻেāϰ āĻ•োāύ āĻĒাāϰ্āĻĨāĻ•্āϝ āύেāχ l (āĻŽāύু: ⧝/⧍ā§Ŧ)


āφāϞোāϚ্āϝ āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāϟি āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻŦāϞে āĻĻে⧟, āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āϏāĻŽাāϜāϰূāĻĒা⧟āĻŖে āύাāϰীāϰ āĻŽāϰ্āϝাāĻĻা āωāϚ্āϚাāϏāύে āĻāĻŦং āϏেāχāϏাāĻĨে āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāϟি āϏংāϏাāϰে āύাāϰী āϝেāύ āĻ•োāύāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻŦāĻž্āϚিāϤ āĻŦা āĻ…āĻŦāĻĻāĻŽিāϤ āύা āĻšā§Ÿ, āϏেāχ āϏāϤāϰ্āĻ•িāĻ•āϰāĻŖ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ“ āφāĻ›ে  l


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে āĻ…āĻĒāϰ āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻĒ্āϰāϧাāύ āĻ…āĻ­িāϝোāĻ— āϜাāϤিāĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦেāώāĻŦাāĻĻ, āϝা āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āωāϚ্āϚāύীāϚ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύāĻ•ে āĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤা āĻĻি⧟ে āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āĻ…āϏাāĻŽ্āϝāϤাāĻ•ে āĻĒ্āϰāĻļ্āϰ⧟ āĻĻে⧟ l āĻŦাāϏ্āϤāĻŦে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ িāĻ• āĻāϰ āĻŦিāĻĒāϰীāϤ l āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āϜাāϤিāĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύেāϰ āϚāϰāĻŽ āĻŦিāĻĒāĻ•্āώে āĻāĻŦং āϏāϰ্āĻŦোāϚ্āϚāĻ­াāĻŦে āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āϏাāĻŽ্āϝāϤাāϰ āĻĒāĻ•্āώে l āφāĻŽāϰা āϧাāĻĒে āϧাāĻĒে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦāĻ• āĻŦāĻ•্āϤāĻŦ্āϝ āĻŦিāώ⧟āϟি āĻŦোāĻাāϰ āϚেāώ্āϟা āĻ•āϰāĻŦো l 


*  āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ“ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ "āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ" āĻ“ "āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা"  āĻŦāϞāϤে āĻ•ি āĻŦোāĻা⧟ āϤা  āĻ…āύুāϧাāĻŦāύেāϰ āϚেāώ্āϟা āĻ•āϰা āϝাāĻ• l āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻŦāϞāĻ›ে,


āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āϝেāĻŽāύ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖāϤ্āĻŦ āϞাāĻ­ āĻ•āϰে āϤেāĻŽāύ āĻāĻ•āχāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰāĻ“ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰāϤা āϞাāĻ­ āĻšā§Ÿ āĻāĻŦং āĻ•্āώāϤ্āϰি⧟ āĻ“ āĻŦৈāĻļ্āϝ āϏāĻŽ্āĻŦāύ্āϧেāĻ“ āĻāĻ•āχāϰূāĻĒ āϜাāύāϤে āĻšāĻŦে l (āĻŽāύু : ā§§ā§Ļ/ ā§Ŧā§Ģ)


āĻŦিāϧাāύāϟিāϤে āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟāϤāχ  āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻāĻ•āĻĨা āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāϏূāϤ, āĻ•োāύ āĻ•ুāϞে āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āϜāύ্āĻŽ āϤাāϰ āĻ•োāύ āϤাā§ŽāĻĒāϰ্āϝ āĻāĻ–াāύে āύেāχ l āĻāχ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা āĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖāĻŽূāϞāĻ• ( inclusive) l āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āĻ…āύ্āϤāϰ্āύিāĻšিāϤ āĻ—ুāĻŖ āĻŦা āϝোāĻ—্āϝāϤা āĻšেāϤু āϤাāϰ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āύিāϰ্āϧাāϰিāϤ āĻāĻŦং āϤāĻĻাāύুāϝা⧟ী āĻŦিāĻļেāώ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖে āϚিāĻš্āύিāϤ l āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা⧟ āϝোāĻ—্āϝāϤাāϰ āĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāϤে āĻāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āĻšāϤে āĻ…āύ্āϝ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖে āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤিāϤ āĻšāĻ“ā§Ÿা āϝা⧟ āĻāĻŦং āϏেāϟাāχ āύি⧟āĻŽ l (Nadkarni.M. V. )  āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻ•ুāϞāϜাāϤ āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤি āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ (āĻŦা āĻ…āύ্āϝ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖে ) āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤিāϤ āĻšāϤে āĻĒাāϰে, āφāĻŦাāϰ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āĻ•ুāϞāϜাāϤ āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤি āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ ( āĻŦা āĻ…āύ্āϝ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖে ) āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤিāϤ āĻšāϤে āĻĒাāϰে l  āϝেāĻŽāύ āĻĒāϰাāĻļāϰ āĻŽুāύিāϰ āĻ”āϰāϏāϜাāϤ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰাāύাāϰী āϏāϤ্āϝāĻŦāϤীāϰ āĻ—āϰ্āĻ­āϜাāϤ āϏāύ্āϤাāύ āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āĻŽāĻšāϰ্āώি āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦ্āϝাāϏ l āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ে āϝিāύি āĻ›িāϞেāύ 'āĻĒাāϰāĻļāĻŦ' l ( āĻļ্āϰী āĻŽুāϰাāϰিāĻŽোāĻšāύ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰী) āφāĻŦাāϰ,  āĻĒাāϰāĻļāĻŦ āĻŦ্āϝাāϏāĻĻেāĻŦেāϰ āĻ”āϰāϏāϜাāϤ āĻšāϏ্āϤীāύাāĻĒুāϰ āĻ…āύ্āϤঃāĻĒুāϰেāϰ āĻāĻ• āĻĻাāϏীāϰ āϏāύ্āϤাāύ āĻŽāĻšাāĻŽāϤি, āĻŽāĻšাāϜ্āĻžাāύী, āĻŽāĻšাāĻŽāύ্āϤ্āϰী āĻŦিāĻĻুāϰ l āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ে āϝিāύি āĻ›িāϞেāύ 'āĻĒুāĻ•্āĻ•āϏ' l (āϐ ) āĻ āĻĒ্āϰāϏāĻ™্āĻ—ে āφāϰāĻ“ āĻāĻ•āϟি āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ–āϝোāĻ—্āϝ āĻĻৃāώ্āϟাāύ্āϤ āĻ›াāύ্āĻĻোāĻ—্āϝ āωāĻĒāύিāώāĻĻে āωāϞ্āϞিāĻ–িāϤ āĻ‹āώি āϏāϤ্āϝāĻ•াāĻŽ, āϝিāύি āĻ›িāϞেāύ āĻĒিāϤৃāĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟āĻšীāύ āĻāĻŦং āϤাঁāϰ āĻŽাāϤা āϜāĻŦাāϞা āĻ›িāϞেāύ āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āĻĻেāĻšোāĻĒোāϜীāĻŦিāύী l āĻŽāĻšাāĻ‹āώি āĻŦাāϞ্āĻŽীāĻ•িāĻ“ āĻ›িāϞেāύ āĻ•ুāϞāĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ l āφāϰāĻ“ āĻ…āύেāĻ• āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āĻ‹āώি āφāĻ›েāύ āϝাঁāϰা āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āĻ—āϰ্āĻ­āϜাāϤ āĻŦা āĻŦংāĻļāĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ l āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύ āĻ­াāϰāϤেāϰ āĻŦāĻšু āϰাāϜা āĻ›িāϞেāύ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ, āϝাঁāϰা āĻĒāϰāĻŦāϰ্āϤী āϏāĻŽā§Ÿে āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖে āĻ•্āώāϤ্āϰি⧟ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›িāϞেāύ l (Kotiyal.H. S.) l āφāĻŦাāϰ, āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻŦা āĻ•্āώāϤ্āϰি⧟ āĻšāϤে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āĻšāĻ“ā§Ÿাāϰ āĻ•াāĻšিāύীāĻ“ āφāĻ›ে l āĻ…āĻĒāϰāĻĻিāĻ•ে, āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āϜাāϤāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨা āĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύāĻŽূāϞāĻ• (exclusive ) āĻāĻ–াāύে āĻ•ুāϞāĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āύিāϰ্āĻĻিāώ্āϟ āĻšā§Ÿ āĻāĻŦং āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖাāύ্āϤāϰিāϤ āĻšāĻ“ā§Ÿাāϰ āϏুāϝোāĻ— āύেāχ l āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨাāχ āĻ•āĻ োāϰ āϜাāϤিāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨাāϰ āϧাāϰāĻ• āĻ“ āĻŦাāĻšāĻ• l āφāϞোāϚ্āϝ āĻŦিāϧাāύে āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāĻ•াāϰ āĻŽāύু āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāϏূāϤ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨাāϰ āĻĒāĻ•্āώে āϰা⧟ āĻĻি⧟েāĻ›েāύ, āϝা āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻāĻŦং āϝৌāĻ•্āϤিāĻ•āĻ­াāĻŦে āĻ•াāĻŽ্āϝ l āĻāχ āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা  āϜাāϤিāϰূāĻĒে āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻ•োāύāϰূāĻĒ āĻ­িāύ্āύāϤা āϤāĻĨা āωāϚ্āϚ-āύীāϚ āĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•াāϰ āĻ•āϰেāύা l āĻ‹āώি āĻ­āϰāĻĻ্āĻŦাāϜেāϰ āϚিāύ্āϤা⧟ āĻāĻŦং āĻ­āĻŦিāώ্āϝāĻĒুāϰাāĻŖে āϜাāϤিāϰূāĻĒে  āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ āĻ…āĻ­িāύ্āύāϤা āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•াāϰ āĻ•āϰা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l  (āϏেāύ āĻ…āĻŽāϰ্āϤ্āϝ , āĻĒৃ: ā§§ā§§) l āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āĻāĻŦং āϜাāϤি - āĻāχ āĻĻুāχāϟি āϧাāϰāĻŖাāĻ—āϤ āĻĻিāĻ• āĻšāϤে  āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āϏ্āĻŦāϤāύ্āϤ্āϰ l āĻĒ্āϰāĻĨāĻŽāϟি āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāϏূāϤ ( merit based ) āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ•,  āĻĻ্āĻŦিāϤী⧟āϟি āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• ( birth based) l āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা⧟ āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽেāϰ āύিāϰিāĻ–ে āĻāĻ•েāĻ•āϜāύেāϰ  āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āϚিāĻš্āύিāϤ āĻ•িāύ্āϤু āĻŽাāύুāώāϰূāĻĒে āϏāĻ•āϞেāχ āĻāĻ•āχ āϜাāϤি (āĻŽাāύুāώ āϜাāϤি) āĻāϰ āĻ…āϧীāύ l āĻ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϰ্āĻ•ে āĻŦিāĻļেāώ āĻ­াāĻŦে āĻĻ্āϰāώ্āϟāĻŦ্āϝ āĻŦৃāĻšāĻĻাāϰāĻŖ্āϝāĻ• āωāĻĒāύিāώāĻĻ āĻāϰ āϚāϤুāϰ্āĻĨ  āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĨāĻŽাāϧ্āϝা⧟, āϝেāĻ–াāύে āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽাāϧিāĻ•াāϰেāϰ āĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāϤে ( āϝোāĻ—্āϝāϤাāϰ āύিāϰিāĻ–ে ) āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ āϚিāĻš্āύিāϤāĻ•āϰāĻŖেāϰ āĻ•āĻĨা āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে āĻāĻŦং āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāϰূāĻĒে āφāϤ্āĻŽাāĻ­িāĻŽাāύāĻ•াāϰীāĻ•ে "āĻ…āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦাāύ্" āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l 


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āφāϰāĻ“ āĻŦāϞāĻ›ে,


āĻ­োāϜāύেāϰ āύিāĻŽিāϤ্āϤে āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻ•āĻ–āύāĻ“ āϏ্āĻŦী⧟ āĻ•ুāϞāĻ—োāϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĻাāύ āĻ•āϰāĻŦে āύা l āĻ­োāϜāύেāϰ āϜāύ্āϝ āĻ•ুāϞ āĻ“ āĻ—োāϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĻাāĻŖ āĻ•āϰিāϞে , āĻĒāύ্āĻĄিāϤāĻ—āĻŖ āϤাāĻ•ে 'āĻŦāĻŽāύāĻ­োāϜী' āĻŦāϞে āĻĨাāĻ•েāύ l (āĻŽāύু : ā§Š/ā§§ā§Ļ⧝)


āĻāχ āĻŦিāϧাāύে āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨা āϤāĻĨা āϜাāϤāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨা āϤীāĻŦ্āϰāϰূāĻĒে āύিāύ্āĻĻিāϤ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āĻ•ুāϞāĻ—োāϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāϤে āφāĻĒāύ āϜীāĻŦিāĻ•া āύিāϰ্āϧাāϰāĻŖ āĻāĻŦং āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟āĻĻাāύāĻ•ে āϘৃāĻŖিāϤ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āϰূāĻĒে āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāύা āĻ•āϰা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āύিāĻ›āĻ• āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖāĻ•ুāϞে āϜāύ্āĻŽ āĻšāĻ“ā§Ÿা⧟ āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻŦāϞে āϚিāĻš্āύিāϤ āĻšāĻŦে āĻāĻŦং āϤāĻĻাāύুāϝা⧟ী āϤাāϰ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āύিāϰ্āϧাāϰিāϤ āĻšāĻŦে - āĻāχ āϚিāύ্āϤা āĻ“ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽেāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে  āϤীāĻŦ্āϰ āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻŦাāĻĻ āϜাāύাāύো āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ–্āϝ, āύ্āϝা⧟āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻĒ্āϰāĻŖেāϤা āĻ‹āώি āĻ—ৌāϤāĻŽāĻ“ āϤাঁāϰ "āĻ›āϞ" āĻŦিāώ⧟āĻ• āφāϞোāϚāύা⧟ 'āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻ•ুāϞāϜাāϤ āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤি āĻŽাāϤ্āϰāχ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ ' āĻāχ āϧাāϰāĻŖাāϰ āĻŦিāϰোāϧিāϤা āĻ•āϰেāĻ›েāύ l  (āĻĢāύীāĻ­ূāώāĻŖ āϤāϰ্āĻ•āĻŦাāĻ—ীāĻļ, āĻĒৃ:⧍ā§Ŧā§§)


āωāĻĒāϰেāϰ āĻĻুāϟি āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻāĻŦং āϤাāϰ āĻĒ্āϰাāϏāĻ™্āĻ—িāĻ• āĻŦিāĻļ্āϞেāώāĻŖ āĻĨেāĻ•ে āĻāϟা āϏুāϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟ āĻšā§Ÿ āϝে, āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āϜāύ্āĻŽāĻ—āϤ āϜাāϤি āĻŦা āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāĻĨাāĻ•ে āĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤা āĻĻে⧟ āύা, āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤি āĻĻে⧟ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨাāĻ•ে, āϝেāĻ–াāύে āφāĻĒāύ āĻ—ুāĻŖ (āϝোāĻ—্āϝāϤা ) āĻ…āύুāϏাāϰে āĻĒ্āϰāϤ্āϝেāĻ•েāϰ āύিāϜ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āύিāϰ্āϧাāϰāĻŖ āĻāĻŦং āϤা āĻĒাāϞāύেāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে l āĻ•াāϜেāχ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āωāϚ্āϚāύীāϚ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύ āĻŦা āϜাāϤিāĻ­েāĻĻ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĨাāĻ•ে āĻŦাāϏ্āϤāĻŦে āĻļুāϧু āĻ…āϏāϰ্āĻŽāĻĨāύāχ āĻ•āϰে āύা, āϚāϰāĻŽ āύিāύ্āĻĻāύী⧟āϰূāĻĒে āĻ—āĻŖ্āϝ āĻ•āϰে l


āĻĒ্āϰāĻ–্āϝাāϤ āύ্āϝা⧟āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻĒāύ্āĻĄিāϤ āĻŽāĻšাāĻŽোāĻšোāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ āĻĢāĻŖিāĻ­ূāώāĻŖ āϤāϰ্āĻ•āĻŦাāĻ—ীāĻļ āĻŽāĻšাāĻļ⧟, āĻ¤ā§ŽāĻĒāϰ্āϝ্āϝāϟিāĻ•া'āĻ•াāϰ āĻļ্āϰীāĻŽāĻĻ্ āĻŦাāϚāϏ্āĻĒāϤি āĻŽিāĻļ্āϰ āĻāĻŦং āĻŽāĻšাāĻ•āĻŦি āĻ•াāϞিāĻĻাāϏেāϰ āωāĻ•্āϤি āĻŦ্āϝাāĻ–্āϝাāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦāĻ• āĻŦāϞেāĻ›েāύ āϝে, āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦāϏংāϏ্āĻ•াāϰāϜāύ্āϝ āĻāĻ•েāĻ• āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤি āĻāĻ•েāĻ• āĻŦিāώ⧟ে āĻ…āύুāϰাāĻ—ী āĻšā§Ÿ l āϝে āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝা⧟ āϝাāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ• āĻ…āύুāϰাāĻ— āϜāύ্āĻŽে, āϏেāχ āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϤেāχ āϤাāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ• āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āϜāύ্āĻŽে - āχāĻšা āϏāϰ্āĻŦāϏāĻŽ্āĻŽāϤ āϏিāĻĻ্āϧাāύ্āϤ l (āĻĒৃ : ā§Šā§Ž-ā§Ēā§Ž) āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰী⧟ āĻ­াāĻŦāύা⧟ āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽে āϏāĻ•āϞেāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻāĻŦং āϤা āύিāϰ্āĻĻিāώ্āϟ āĻšāĻŦে āĻŦ্āϝāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āĻ…āύ্āϤāϰ্āύিāĻšিāϤ āĻ—ুāĻŖ (āĻĒ্āϰāĻŦāĻŖāϤা) āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা (  āĻ—ীāϤা : ā§Ē/ā§§ā§Š) l āĻāϟাāχ āĻŦেāĻĻাāύুāĻŽিāϤ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা l āĻŽāύāϏংāĻšিāϤাāĻ“ āϏেāχ āĻāĻ•āχ āĻ•āĻĨা āĻŦāϞāĻ›ে l


* āĻĻāύ্āĻĄāύীāϤি


āĻļাāϏ্āϤিāĻŦিāϧাāύেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰেāĻ“ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻĒāĻ•্āώāĻĒাāϤāĻŽূāϞāĻ• l āĻāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে  āĻ…āĻ­িāϝোāĻ— āϝে, āϏাāĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤāĻŽ āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧে āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰেāϰ āϝেāĻ–াāύে āϚāϰāĻŽ āĻļাāϏ্āϤিāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ, āĻ…āύ্āϝāĻĻিāĻ•ে āĻ—ুāϰুāϤāϰ āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧেāĻ“ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻļাāϏ্āϤি āϞāϘুāϤāϰ l āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧ āĻ“ āϤাāϰ āĻļাāϏ্āϤি āĻŦিāϧাāύেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰেāĻ“ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰেāϰ āωāĻĒāϰ āĻ…āϰিāĻŽাāϤ্āϰা⧟ āύিāϰ্āĻĻ⧟ l āĻŦাāϏ্āϤāĻŦে, āĻāχ āĻ…āĻ­িāϝোāĻ—āĻ“ āϝāĻĨাāϰ্āĻĨ āύ⧟ l āĻ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϰ্āĻ•ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āύিāĻŽāϰূāĻĒ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āĻĒ্āϰāĻŖিāϧাāύāϝোāĻ—্āϝ l


āϝে āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧে āϏাāϧাāϰāύ āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ āĻāĻ• āĻĒāĻŖ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে, āϰাāϜা āϏেāχ āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧ āĻ•āϰāϞে āϤাঁāϰ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে āĻāĻ• āϏāĻšāϏ্āϰ āĻĒāĻŖ l ( āĻŽāύু : ā§Ž/ā§Šā§Šā§Ŧ)


 āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻĻোāώāϜ্āĻž āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āϝāĻĻি āϚুāϰি āĻ•āϰে, āϝে āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āύিāϰ্āĻĻিāώ্āϟ, āϤাāϰ āφāϟāĻ—ুāĻŖ āϐ āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰেāϰ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে, āĻŦৈāĻļ্āϝ āϚোāϰেāϰ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে   āώোāϞāĻ—ুāĻŖ, āĻāĻŦং āĻ•্āώāϤ্āϰি⧟ āϚোāϰেāϰ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে āĻŦāϤ্āϰিāĻļāĻ—ুāĻŖ l ( āĻŽāύু : ā§Ž/ā§Šā§Šā§­)


āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āϏেāχ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে āϚৌāώāϟ্āϟি āĻ—ুāĻŖ, āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻŦাāύ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āϏেāχ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে āĻāĻ•āĻļāϤāĻ—ুāĻŖ, āĻ…āϤ্āϝāύ্āϤ āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻŦাāύ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āϏেāχ āĻĻāύ্āĻĄ āĻšāĻŦে āĻāĻ•āĻļāϤ āφāϟাāĻļāĻ—ুāĻŖ l ( āĻŽāύু: ā§Ž/ā§Šā§Šā§Ž)


āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āĻšāϤে āĻāϟা āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āϟāϤāχ āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻĢāϞিāϤ āĻšā§Ÿ āϝে, ' āĻāĻ•āχ āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧে āϏāĻ•āϞেāϰ āĻāĻ•āχāĻŽাāϤ্āϰা⧟ āĻļাāϏ্āϤি' - āĻāϟা āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āϏāĻŦāĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤ āĻšā§Ÿāύি l āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧীāϰ āĻļাāϏ্āϤিāϰ āĻŽাāϤ্āϰা āύিāϰ্āϧাāϰāĻŖে āϤাāϰ āϜ্āĻžাāύেāϰ āĻŽাāϤ্āϰা āĻŦিāĻŦেāϚিāϤ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে āĻāĻŦং āĻāĻ•াāϰāύেāχ āϚৌāϰ্āϝāĻŦৃāϤ্āϤি āĻŦা āĻāϜাāϤী⧟ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ āĻ…āĻĒেāĻ•্āώা āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āĻļাāϏ্āϤিāϰ āĻŽাāϤ্āϰা āĻ…āϧিāĻ•āϤāϰ l āϰাāϜা, āϝিāύি āϰāĻ•্āώāĻ• āϤিāύিāχ āϝāĻĻি āĻ­āĻ•্āώāĻ• āĻšāύ, āϤাāϰ āĻļাāϏ্āϤি āϏāϰ্āĻŦাāϧিāĻ• l  āĻŽāύুāώ্āϝāĻšāϤ্āϝা āĻŦা āĻšāϤ্āϝাāϰ āϚেāώ্āϟা āχāϤ্āϝাāĻĻি āύৃāĻļংāϏ āĻ…āĻĒāϰাāϧেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āĻ…āĻŦāĻļ্āϝ āĻāχ āύীāϤি āĻĒ্āϰāϝোāϜ্āϝ āύ⧟  l āĻĒ্āϰāϏāĻ™্āĻ—āϤ: āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ–্āϝ, āĻ•োāύ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻ•াāωāĻ•ে āĻšāϤ্āϝা āĻ•āϰāϤে āωāĻĻ্āϝāϤ āĻšāϞে āφāϤ্āĻŽāϰāĻ•্āώা⧟ āϏেāχ āφāϤāϤা⧟ী āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖāĻ•ে āĻšāϤ্āϝাāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āφāĻ›ে āĻāĻŦং āϏেāχ āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻšāϤ্āϝা⧟ āφāϤ্āĻŽāϰāĻ•্āώাāĻ•াāϰীāϰ āĻ•োāύ āĻ…āϧāϰ্āĻŽ āĻšāĻŦে āύা (āĻ…āύ্āϝাāύ্āϝ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖেāϰ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰেāĻ“ āĻāĻ•āχ āĻ•āĻĨা āĻĒ্āϰāϝোāϜ্āϝ ) l (āĻŽāύু : ā§Ž/ā§Šā§Ģā§Ļ-ā§Šā§Ģā§§)


*  āϏাāĻŽ্āϝāϤা


āĻāĻŽāύāϤāϰ āĻ…āύেāĻ•ে āĻŦāϞেāύ āĻŦা āĻŽāύে āĻ•āϰেāύ, āĻĒ্āϰাāϚীāύ āĻšিāύ্āĻĻু āϏāĻŽাāϜে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āĻŦেāĻĻāĻĒাāĻ েāϰ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āĻ›িāϞ āύা l āĻāχ āϧাāϰāĻŖা āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖāϰূāĻĒে āĻ­্āϰাāύ্āϤ l āϝāϜুāϰ্āĻŦেāĻĻ āĻŦāϞāĻ›ে,


āϝāĻĨেāĻŽাং āĻŦাāϚং āĻ•āϞ্āϝাāύীāĻŽাāĻŦāĻĻাāύি āϜāύেāĻ­্āϝঃ ।

āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽ āϰাāϜāύ্āϝাāĻ­্āϝাং āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰা⧟ āϚাāϰ্āϝ্āϝা⧟ āϚ āϏ্āĻŦা⧟ āϚাāϰāĻŖা⧟ āϚ।।

āĻĒ্āϰি⧟ো āĻĻেāĻŦাāύাং āĻĻāĻ•্āώিāĻŖা⧟ৈ āĻĻাāϤুāϰিāĻš, āĻ­ূ⧟াāϏāĻŽā§Ÿং āĻŽে āĻ•াāĻŽঃ āϏāĻŽৃāϧ্āϝāϤাāĻŽুāĻĒ āĻŽাāĻĻো āύāĻŽāϤু ।। ( āϝāϜুāϰ্āĻŦেāĻĻ, ⧍ā§Ŧ/⧍)


āϝাāϰ āĻ­াāĻŦাāύুāĻŦাāĻĻ, āĻšে āĻŽāύুāώ্āϝāĻ—āĻŖ āφāĻŽি āϝে āϰূāĻĒে āĻŦ্āϰাāĻ•্āώāĻŖ ,āĻ•্āώāϤ্āϰি⧟ ,āĻŦৈāĻļ্āϝ ,āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰ, āĻāĻŦং āĻ…āύ্āϝাāύ্āϝ āϏāĻŽāϏ্āϤ āϜāύāĻ—āύāĻ•ে āĻāχ āĻ•āϞ্āϝাāĻŖāĻĻা⧟িāύী āĻĒāĻŦিāϤ্āϰ āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦাāĻŖী āĻŦāϞিāϤেāĻ›ি , āϤোāĻŽāϰাāĻ“ āϏেāχ āϰূāĻĒ āĻ•āϰ। āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦাāĻŖীāϰ āωāĻĒāĻĻেāĻļ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĻাāĻŖে āϝেāĻŽāύ āφāĻŽি āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦাāύāĻĻেāϰ āĻĒ্āϰি⧟ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ি , āϤোāĻŽāϰাāĻ“ āϏেāχāϰূāĻĒ āĻšāĻ“, āϏāĻ•āϞে āĻŽোāĻ•্āώ āĻāĻŦং āϏুāĻ– āϞাāĻ­ āĻ•āϰুāĻ• l ( āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽী āĻŦেāĻĻাāύāύ্āĻĻ )


 āωāĻĒāύিāώāĻĻেāϰ āĻĒāĻ āύāĻĒাāĻ āύ āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āϏāύ্āύ্āϝাāϏীāϰ āύ্āϝা⧟ āĻ—ৃāĻšāϏ্āĻĨāĻ—āĻŖāĻ“ āϚāϰ্āϚা āĻāĻŦং āϏুāĻĢāϞ āϞাāĻ­ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰেāύ l āĻŽāĻšাāύিāϰ্āĻŦাāĻŖāϤāύ্āϤ্āϰে āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে,


āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāύিāώ্āϟ āĻ—ৃāĻšāϏ্āĻĨ: āϏ্āϝাā§Ž āϤāϤ্āϤ্āĻŦāϜ্āĻžাāύāĻĒāϰা⧟āĻŖ:l

āϝāĻĻ্ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āĻĒ্āϰāĻ•ুāϰ্āĻŦিāϤ āϤāĻĻ্ āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖি āϏāĻŽāϰ্āĻĒ⧟েā§Ž ll (āϝুāϧিāώ্āĻ িāϰ āĻ—োāĻĒ : āĻĒৃ : ā§Ģ)


 āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāĻ“ āĻāĻ•āχāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰিāĻ• āĻāĻŦং āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ• āωāϭ⧟āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰেāχ āϏাāĻŽ্āϝāϤাāϰ āϤāĻĨা āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ āϏāĻŽাāϧিāĻ•াāϰে āĻŦিāĻļ্āĻŦাāϏী l āĻ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒāϰ্āĻ•ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āύিāĻŽāϰূāĻĒ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āĻĒ্āϰāĻŖিāϧাāύāϝোāĻ—্āϝ l


āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝা āϝāĻĻি āĻŽāĻ™্āĻ—āϞāϜāύāĻ• āĻšā§Ÿ, āĻļ্āϰāĻĻ্āϧাāϝুāĻ•্āϤ āĻšā§Ÿে āĻļূāĻĻ্āϰেāϰ āύিāĻ•āϟ āĻĨেāĻ•েāĻ“ āϤা āĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖ āĻ•āϰāĻŦে l āĻ…āύ্āϤ্āϝāϜেāϰ āύিāĻ•āϟ āĻĨেāĻ•েāχ āĻĒāϰāĻŽ āϧāϰ্āĻŽ āĻāĻŦং āφāĻĒāύাāϰ āĻ…āĻĒেāĻ•্āώা āύিāĻ•ৃāώ্āϟ āĻ•ুāϞ āĻĨেāĻ•েāĻ“ āωāϤ্āϤāĻŽ āϏ্āϤ্āϰীāϰāϤ্āύ āĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖ āĻ•āϰিāĻŦেāύ l (āĻŽāύু : ⧍/ā§¨ā§Šā§Ž)


āϏ্āϤ্āϰী, āϰāϤ্āύ, āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝা, āϧāϰ্āĻŽ, āĻļৌāϚ, āĻšিāϤāĻ•āĻĨা āĻāĻŦং āĻŦিāĻŦিāϧ āĻļিāϞ্āĻĒāĻ•াāϰ্āϝ - āĻāχ āĻ—ুāϞি āϏāĻ•āϞেāϰ āĻ•াāĻ› āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϏāĻ•āϞেāχ āĻ—্āϰāĻšāĻŖ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰে l (āĻŽāύু : ⧍/⧍ā§Ēā§Ļ)


āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽāϚাāϰী āφāĻĒā§ŽāĻ•াāϞে āĻ…āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖেāϰ āύিāĻ•āϟ āĻ…āϧ্āϝ⧟āύ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰেāύ āĻāĻŦং āϝāϤāĻĻিāύ āĻ…āϧ্āϝ⧟āύ āĻ•āϰāĻŦেāύ āϤāϤāĻĻিāύ āĻĒāϰ্āϝāύ্āϤ āĻ…āύুāĻ—āĻŽāύ āĻĒ্āϰāĻ­ৃāϤিāϰ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āĻļুāĻļ্āϰুāώা āĻ•āϰāĻŦেāύ l  (āĻŽāύু : ⧍/⧍ā§Ēā§§)


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āωāϞ্āϞিāĻ–িāϤ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āϜ্āĻžাāύাāϰ্āϜāύ, āĻļিāĻ•্āώাāĻĻাāύ, āĻŦিāĻŦাāĻš āĻšāϤে āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰে āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦāϰ্āĻŖিāϤ āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āϏাāĻŽ্āϝ āĻāĻŦং āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰāĻ•েāχ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻ•ৃāϤি āĻĻে⧟ l


* āύীāϤিāϧāϰ্āĻŽ


āĻ…āĻšিংāϏা, āϏāϤ্āϝāĻ•āĻĨāύ, āĻ…āϚৌāϰ্āϝ, āĻļুāϚিāϤ্āĻŦ āĻ“ āχāύ্āĻĻ্āϰি⧟ āϏংāϝāĻŽ āĻāχāϏāĻ•āϞ āϧāϰ্āĻŽ āϚāϤুāϰ্āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖেāϰ āĻĒাāϞāύী⧟ l ( āĻŽāύু: ā§§ā§Ļ/ ā§Ŧā§Ē)


āϝাঁāϰ āĻŦাāĻ•্āϝ āĻ“ āĻŽāύ āĻļুāĻĻ্āϧ, āϝিāύি āĻŦাāĻ•্āϝ āĻ“ āĻŽāύāĻ•ে āύিāώিāĻĻ্āϧ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āĻĨেāĻ•ে āϏāϰ্āĻŦāĻĻা āϏāĻŽ্āϝāĻ•āĻ­াāĻŦে āϰāĻ•্āώা āĻ•āϰেāύ, āϤিāύি āĻŦেāĻĻাāύ্āϤāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āωāĻ•্āϤ āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻĢāϞāχ āϞাāĻ­ āĻ•āϰেāύ l (āĻŽāύু āϏংāĻšিāϤা: ⧍/ā§§ā§Ŧā§Ļ)


āύিāϜে āύিāϤাāύ্āϤ āĻĒী⧜িāϤ āĻšāϞেāĻ“ āĻŽāϰ্āĻŽāĻĒী⧜া āĻĻিāϤে āύেāχ ; āĻĒāϰেāϰ āĻ…āύিāώ্āϟ āĻšā§Ÿ āϤেāĻŽāύ āĻ•োāύ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āĻŦা āϚিāύ্āϤা āĻ•āϰāϤে āύেāχ l (āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা: ⧍/ā§§ā§Ŧā§§)


āϐāĻšিāĻ• āϏāĻŽ্āĻŽাāύāĻ•ে āĻŦ্āϰাāĻš্āĻŽāĻŖ āϚিāϰāϜীāĻŦāύ āĻŦিāώেāϰ āύ্āϝা⧟ āϜ্āĻžাāύ āĻ•āϰāĻŦেāύ āĻāĻŦং āĻ…āĻĒāĻŽাāύāĻ•ে āϏāϰ্āĻŦāĻĻা āĻ…āĻŽৃāϤেāϰ āύ্āϝা⧟ āφāĻ•াāĻ™্āĻ–া āĻ•āϰāĻŦেāύ l (āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা: ⧍/ā§§ā§Ŧ⧍)


āĻ•্āώāĻŽাāĻļীāϞāϤাāϰ āωāĻĒāϰ āĻ—ুāϰুāϤ্āĻŦ āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l (ā§Ģ/ā§§ā§Ļā§­)


āĻĒিāϤা, āĻŽাāϤা āĻāĻŦং āφāϚাāϰ্āϝ āĻāχ āϤিāύāϜāύেāϰ āϏেāĻŦাāĻ•েāχ "āĻĒāϰāĻŽ  āϤāĻĒāϏ্āϝা" āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l "āϤ্āϰি āĻŦেāĻĻ', " āϤিāύ āϞোāĻ• " āĻāϰ āĻ…āĻ­িāύ্āύ āĻŦāϞা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l ( āĻŽāύু : ⧍/ā§¨ā§¨ā§Ž - ā§¨ā§Šā§Ļ)


āωāϞ্āϞিāĻ–িāϤ āĻŦিāϧাāύে āϝে āωāĻĻাāϰ āωāϚ্āϚāϤāϰ āύৈāϤিāĻ• āĻŽূāϞ্āϝāĻŦোāϧ āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖিāϤ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে, āϤা āĻŦāϞাāĻŦাāĻšুāϞ্āϝ l āϜ্āĻžাāύāϝোāĻ—েāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāϝোāĻ—āĻ•ে āϏāĻŽāĻŽāϰ্āϝাāĻĻা āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l āĻŦেāĻĻāϜ্āĻžাāύ āĻŦ্āϝāϤিāϰেāĻ•ে āĻāĻ•āϜāύ āϏ্āĻŦাāϰ্āĻĨāĻšীāύāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻ•āϰ্āϤāĻŦ্āϝ āĻĒাāϞāύ āĻ•āϰāϞেāĻ“ āωāϚ্āϚāϤāϰ ( āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ•āϤাāϰ āύিāϰিāĻ–ে ) āϏ্āĻĨাāύে āĻĒৌঁāĻ›āϤে āĻĒাāϰে, āĻāĻŽāύ āĻŽāϤ āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l


 āĻāχ āϏāĻ•āϞ āĻŦিāϧাāύে āϝে āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ•āϤা āĻ•āĻĨিāϤ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে, āĻ িāĻ• āĻāϰ āĻŦিāĻĒāϰীāϤāϧāϰ্āĻŽী āĻŦāĻšু āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϤে āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে, āϝা āφāĻŽāϰা āĻāχ āϞেāĻ–াāϰ āϏূāϚāύাāϤেāχ āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āĻ•āϰেāĻ›ি l āĻĒ্āϰāĻļ্āύ āĻšāϞ, āĻāĻ•āχ āĻ—্āϰāύ্āĻĨে āĻāχ āϚāϰāĻŽ āϏ্āĻŦāĻŦিāϰোāϧিāϤা āĻ•েāύ? āĻāĻ•āχ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāĻ•াāϰ āĻ•িāĻ­াāĻŦে āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āĻāϤāĻĻ্ āφāϤ্āĻŽāĻŦিāϰোāϧিāϤা āĻ•āϰেāĻ›েāύ? āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āϝে āϜাāϤিāĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦা āϞিāĻ™্āĻ—āĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦা āϏাāϰ্āĻŦিāĻ•āϰূāĻĒে āĻ…āĻŦāĻĻāĻŽāύāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ—ুāϞি āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে, āϏেāĻ—ুāϞি āĻŦাāϏ্āϤāĻŦে āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤি āĻŦা āĻ—োঁāϜ, āϝেāĻ—ুāϞি āĻ—ুঁāϜে āĻĻেāĻ“ā§Ÿা āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟, āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāĻ•ে āĻ…āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻ“ āĻŦিāĻ­েāĻĻāĻ•াāĻŽী āϰূāĻĒাāύ্āϤāϰেāϰ āϏ্āĻŦাāϰ্āĻĨে l āĻ“āχ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤিāĻ—ুāϞিāϰ āĻ•োāύāϟিāχ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āύ⧟, āĻšāϤেāχ āĻĒাāϰেāύা l āĻ•েāύ āĻšāϤে āĻĒাāϰে āύা, āĻāϰ āωāϤ্āϤāϰ āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϤে āĻāĻŦং āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ•āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻ—āĻ āύāϤāύ্āϤ্āϰে l

  

"āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা" āφāϏāϞে āĻ•ি? āĻāϟি āĻāĻ•āϟি āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ  āĻ…āϰ্āĻĨাā§Ž āĻŦেāĻĻাāĻļ্āϰিāϤ āĻŦা āĻŦেāĻĻাāύুāĻŽোāĻĻিāϤ āϏāĻŽাāϜ āĻĒāϰিāϚাāϞāύ āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨাāϰ  āĻ•āϰ্āϤāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦিāϧি l āĻŦেāĻĻāχ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ­ূāĻŽি - 'āĻŦেāĻĻাāϰ্āĻĨোāĻĒāύিāĻŦāĻĻ্āϧাāϤ্āĻŦাā§Ž  āĻĒ্āϰাāϧাāύ্āϝāĻŽ্ āϤু āĻŽāύো: āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤāĻŽ্ ' l ( āĻļ্āϰী āĻŽুāϰাāϰিāĻŽোāĻšāύ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰী, āĻĒৃ: ā§§) l


āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻŦāϞāĻ›ে,


āϝে āϏāĻ•āϞ āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤি āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āύ⧟ āĻāĻŦং āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧ, āϏে āϏāĻŦ āĻĒāϰāϞোāĻ•ে āĻĢāϞāĻĻা⧟āĻ• āĻšā§Ÿ āύা āĻŦāϰং āύāϰāĻ• āĻĢāϞāĻĻা⧟āĻ• āĻšā§Ÿে āĻĨাāĻ•ে l ( āĻŽāύু :  ⧧⧍/⧝ā§Ģ)


āϚāϤুāϰ্āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖ, āϤ্āϰিāϞোāĻ•, āϚāϤুāϰাāĻļ্āϰāĻŽ, āĻ­ূāϤ- āĻ­āĻŦিāώ্āĻ¯ā§Ž- āĻŦāϰ্āϤāĻŽাāύ  - āĻ āϏāĻ•āϞāχ āĻŦেāĻĻ āĻšāϤেāχ āĻĒ্āϰāϏিāĻĻ্āϧ āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে l ( āĻŽāύু : ⧧⧍/⧝⧭)


āωāϞ্āϞিāĻ–িāϤ āĻļ্āϞোāĻ•āĻĻুāϟিāϰ āĻŦāĻ•্āϤāĻŦ্āϝ,  āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰিāĻ• āĻāĻŦং āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ• āϜীāĻŦāύেāϰ āĻŽূāϞ āϧাāϰāĻŖা āĻāĻŦং āϤāĻĻাāύুāϝা⧟ী āϝে āĻ•āϰ্āϤāĻŦ্āϝāĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϤে āĻŦিāϧাāύāϰূāĻĒে āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ– āĻĨাāĻ•āĻŦে, āϤা āĻ…āĻŦāĻļ্āϝāχ āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻšāϤে āĻšāĻŦে l āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āϰীāϤি āĻŦা āϧাāϰāĻŖাāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ…āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ•োāύāĻ•িāĻ›ুāχ āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϤে āĻĨাāĻ•āϤে āĻĒাāϰāĻŦে āύা l āύাāϰীāϰ āĻŦিāĻŦিāϧ āĻ…āϧিāĻ•াāϰ āϏāĻš, āĻ—ুāĻŖāĻĒ্āϰāϏূāϤ āĻ•āϰ্āĻŽāĻ­িāϤ্āϤিāĻ• āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨা, āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ• āĻŦৈāώāĻŽ্āϝāĻšীāύāϤা - āĻ āϏāĻ•āϞāχ āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻĒাāĻĻ্āϝ l  āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āĻāχ āωāĻĻাāϰ āϚিāύ্āϤাāϧাāϰাāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻŦিāϧাāύāχ āĻ•েāĻŦāϞāĻŽাāϤ্āϰ āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύāϰূāĻĒে āĻ—āĻŖ্āϝ, āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ…āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ•োāύ āĻŦিāϧাāύāχ āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āϰূāĻĒে āĻ—āĻŖ্āϝ āύ⧟ l āĻŦিāώ⧟āϟি āϏāĻšāϜāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻŦোāĻা āϝাāĻ•, āĻŦāϰ্āϤāĻŽাāύ āĻ­াāϰāϤāĻŦāϰ্āώে āϰাāώ্āϟ্āϰāĻĒāϰিāϚাāϞāύāĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāϏ্āĻĨাāϰ āĻļীāϰ্āώে āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে āĻ­াāϰāϤী⧟ āϏংāĻŦিāϧাāύ l āφāχāύāĻĒ্āϰāĻŖেāϤাāĻ—āĻŖ āϏāĻŽাāϜেāϰ āϏ্āĻŦাāϰ্āĻĨে āύāĻŦ āφāχāύ āĻĒ্āϰāϪ⧟āĻŖ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰেāύ āĻ•িāĻŽ্āĻŦা āĻĒুāϰোāύো āφāχāύ āϏংāĻļোāϧāύ āĻ•āϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰেāύ āĻ•িāύ্āϤু āϝে āφāχāύāχ āϤাঁāϰা āĻŦāϞāĻŦā§Ž āĻ•āϰুāĻ•' āύা āĻ•েāύ, āϏেāϟিāĻ•ে āĻ…āĻŦāĻļ্āϝāχ āϏংāĻŦিāϧাāύেāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻšāϤে āĻšāĻŦে, āĻ…āύ্āϝāĻĨা⧟ āϤা āĻšā§Ÿে āϝাāĻŦে āĻ…āĻŦৈāϧ āĻāĻŦং āĻļূāύ্āϝāĻ—āϰ্āĻ­ l  āĻāĻ•āχ āϝুāĻ•্āϤিāϤে āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻŦা āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϤে āϝāĻĻি āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦিāϰোāϧী āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻĨাāĻ•ে, āϏেāχ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻ…āĻŦৈāϧ āĻāĻŦং āĻļূāύ্āϝāĻ—āϰ্āĻ­ āĻŦāϞে āĻ—āĻŖ্āϝ āĻšāĻŦে l āωāϞ্āϞেāĻ–্āϝ, āĻ•্āώেāϤ্āϰāĻŦিāĻļেāώে āϏংāĻŦিāϧাāύ āϏংāĻļোāϧāύ āϏāĻŽ্āĻ­āĻŦ āĻ•িāύ্āϤু āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āĻŽূāϞāĻĻāϰ্āĻļāύ āĻŦা āĻ­াāĻŦāύাāϰ āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤāύ āϏāĻŽ্āĻ­āĻŦ āύ⧟ l āĻšিāύ্āĻĻু āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻ—āĻ āύāϤāύ্āϤ্āϰ āĻĒ্āϰāϏāĻ™্āĻ—ে āϏ্āĻŦ⧟ং āψāĻļ্āĻŦāϰāϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϏাāĻ—āϰ, āĻŦ্āϝাāϏāĻĻেāĻŦāĻ•ে āĻ…āύুāϏāϰāĻŖ āĻ•āϰে āĻŦāϞāĻ›েāύ,


Where variance is observed between the Veda, the Smriti and the Purana, there the Veda is the Supreme authority; when the Smriti and the Purana contradict each other, the Smriti is the superior authority. (Iswarachandra Vidyasagar, āĻĒৃ : ⧧⧝)


āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ•āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāϏāĻŽূāĻš āĻāĻ•āϟি āϏুāϏংāĻŦāĻĻ্āϧ āϤāύ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻ…āϧীāύ l āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āϏāϰ্āĻŦোāϚ্āϚ āϏ্āĻĨাāύে āϰ⧟েāĻ›ে āĻļ্āϰুāϤি (āĻŦেāĻĻ), āϤাāϰ āύীāϚে āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤি āĻāĻŦং āϤাāϰ āύীāϚে āĻĒুāϰাāĻŖ āĻ“ āĻ…āύ্āϝাāύ্āϝ l āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ•āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āĻŽাāϤ্āϰেāχ āĻāχ āϤāύ্āϤ্āϰ (system) āĻāϰ āĻ…āϧীāύ l āĻ•াāϜেāχ āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤি āĻŦা āĻĒুāϰাāĻŖ, āϤাāϤে āϝে āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻŦা āĻ•āϰ্āϤāĻŦ্āϝāĻ•āϰ্āĻŽ āĻŦা āύীāϤি āϘোāώিāϤ āĻŦা āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖিāϤ āĻšোāĻ•'āύা āĻ•েāύ,  āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦিāϰোāϧী āĻšāϞে āϤা āĻ•āĻ–āύāχ āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϰূāĻĒে āĻŦিāĻŦেāϚিāϤ āĻšāϤে āĻĒাāϰāĻŦে āύা l āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ  āĻŽāĻšাāĻŦাāĻ•্āϝ ( 'āĻĒ্āϰāϜ্āĻžাāύং āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽ', ' āĻ¤ā§Ž āϤ্āĻŦāĻŽ āĻ…āϏি', ''āĻ…āĻšং āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽাāϏ্āĻŽি', 'āĻ…āϝ়ং āφāϤ্āĻŽা āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽ' āĻĒ্āϰāĻ­ৃāϤি ) āĻŽাāϤ্āϰāχ āϏāϰ্āĻŦং āĻ–āϞ্āĻŦিāĻĻং āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽ' āĻ…āϰ্āĻĨাā§Ž  āĻāχ āϏāĻŦāχ āĻŦ্āϰāĻš্āĻŽ ( All in One ) āϧাāϰāĻŖাāϰ āϜ্āĻžাāĻĒāĻ• l  āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āϝাāĻŦāϤী⧟ āϏ্āϤোāϤ্āϰ āĻ“ āĻŽāύ্āϤ্āϰ āϏেāχ āϞāĻ•্āώ্āϝাāĻ­িāĻŽুāĻ–ী l āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āĻĻāϰ্āĻļāύেāϰ āĻāχ āφāϧ্āϝাāϤ্āĻŽিāĻ• āĻŦীāĻ•্āώাāχ āĻĒ্āϰāĻ•াāĻļ āĻĒা⧟ āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰিāĻ• āĻŦা āϜাāĻ—āϤিāĻ• āĻ­াāĻŦāύা⧟, āϝাāĻ•ে āϏাংāϏাāϰিāĻ• āϜীāĻŦāύে āĻŦাāĻš্āϝিāĻ• āϰূāĻĒāϰেāĻ–া āĻĻিāϤে āϏৃāώ্āϟি āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›ে āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ āϤāĻĨা āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤি l āϏ্āĻŽৃāϤিāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻ•āĻ–āύāχ āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āĻ…āύ্āϤāϰ্āύিāĻšিāϤ āĻĻাāϰ্āĻļāύিāĻ• āϚেāϤāύা āĻŦা āύীāϤিāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āĻ…āϏংāĻ—āϤিāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻšāϤে āĻĒাāϰāĻŦে āύা l āĻĢāϞāϏ্āĻŦāϰূāĻĒ, āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϧ⧰্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰে āĻ…āĻŦāĻĻāĻŽāύāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦা āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻŦেāώāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻ•োāύ āĻŦাāĻ•্āϝ āĻĨাāĻ•āϤেāχ āĻĒাāϰāĻŦে āύা, āĻ•াāϰāύ, āĻŦেāĻĻ āϤা āĻ…āύুāĻŽāϤি āĻĻে⧟ āύা l āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āϏāĻš āϏāĻ•āϞ āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰে āϝে āĻĒāĻ•্āώāĻĒাāϤāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦা āĻŦিāĻ­েāĻĻāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻŦāϚāύ āφāĻ›ে, āϤা āϏāĻŦāχ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤি l


āϧāϰ্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāĻ—ুāϞি āϏৃāώ্āϟিāϰ āϏāĻŽā§Ÿে āĻāχ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤি āϏāĻŽ্āĻ­āĻŦāχ āĻ›িāϞ āύা l āĻĒ্āϰāĻŦāϞ āϝুāĻ•্āϤিāĻŦাāĻĻ āĻ›িāϞ āĻāϰ āĻ•াāϰāύ l āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāϟি āĻļāĻŦ্āĻĻ āϧāϰে āϧāϰে āĻ¤ā§ŽāĻĒāϰ্āϝ্āϝ āĻŦিāĻļ্āϞেāώāĻŖ āĻ•āϰা āĻšāϤো l āĻ āĻŦিāώ⧟ে āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āĻ‹āώিāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻĒাāϰāϏ্āĻĒāϰিāĻ• āĻŦিāϚাāϰ āĻŦিāĻļ্āϞেāώāĻŖ āĻ…āύāĻŦāϰāϤ āϚāϞāϤো l āϏেāϟাāχ āĻ›িāϞ āύি⧟āĻŽ l āĻ•াāϜেāχ āĻ¤ā§ŽāĻ•াāϞীāύ āϏāĻŽā§Ÿে āĻŦৈāĻĻিāĻ• āϧ⧰্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰে āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻŦেāĻĻāĻŦিāϰোāϧী āĻŦা āĻŦেāĻĻেāϰ āϧাāϰāĻŖা āĻŦিāϰোāϧী āĻŦিāϧাāύ āϏāĻŽ্āĻ­āĻŦāχ āĻ›িāϞāύা l āĻāχ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤি āϘāϟে āĻĒāϰāĻŦāϰ্āϤীāĻ•াāϞে āϧীāϰে āϧীāϰে l āĻŦিāĻ—āϤ āĻāĻ• āϏāĻšāϏ্āϰ āĻŦā§ŽāϏāϰ āĻ“ āϤাāϰ āĻ•ā§ŸেāĻ• āĻļāϤাāĻŦ্āĻĻী āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦ āĻšāϤে āĻ­াāϰāϤী⧟ āϰাāϜāύৈāϤিāĻ• āϜীāĻŦāύে āϝে āĻ…āϏ্āĻĨিāϰāϤা āϤৈāϰী āĻšā§ŸেāĻ›িāϞ, āϤাāϰ āĻ•ুāĻĒ্āϰāĻ­াāĻŦ āĻ–ুāĻŦ āϏ্āĻŦাāĻ­াāĻŦিāĻ• āĻ­াāĻŦেāχ āφāĻŦāĻšāĻŽাāύ āĻ•াāϞ āϧāϰে āϚāϞে āφāϏা āĻ­াāϰāϤী⧟ āϏাāĻŽাāϜিāĻ•, āϧāϰ্āĻŽী⧟, āĻļিāĻ•্āώা āĻ“ āϏাংāϏ্āĻ•ৃāϤিāĻ• āϜীāĻŦāύেāĻ“ āĻ—āĻ­ীāϰāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻĒ⧜েāĻ›িāϞ l āĻ…āϏ্āĻĒৃāĻļ্āϝāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϰুāĻĻ্āϧে āĻ­āĻ•্āϤি āφāύ্āĻĻোāϞāύ āϧাāϰাāĻŦাāĻšিāĻ•āĻŦিāĻ—āϤ āĻāχ āϏāĻŽā§ŸāĻ•াāϞে āĻ—ā§œে āωāĻ āϤে āĻĨাāĻ•ে, āϰাāϜা āϰাāĻŽāĻŽোāĻšāύ - āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϏাāĻ—āϰ āĻĒ্āϰāĻŽুāĻ– āϏāĻŽাāϜ āĻ“ āϧāϰ্āĻŽ āϏংāϏ্āĻ•াāϰāĻ—āĻŖেāϰ āχāϤিāĻšাāϏ āĻŦিāĻ—āϤ āĻĻুāχ -āϤিāύ āĻļāϤāĻ•েāϰ l āĻ•্āϰি⧟া - āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻ•্āϰি⧟া āĻŦা āĻŦাāĻĻ - āĻŦিāϏāĻŽ্āĻŦাāĻĻ āĻĨেāĻ•ে āĻŽāύে āĻšā§Ÿ āĻŦিāĻ—āϤ āĻāĻ•āϏāĻšāϏ্āϰāĻ•াāϞেāϰ āχāϤিāĻšাāϏ āĻ—āĻ­ীāϰāĻ­াāĻŦে āĻ…āύুāĻļীāϞāύ āϝāĻĻি āϏāĻŽ্āĻ­āĻŦ āĻšā§Ÿ, āϧ⧰্āĻŽāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤিāϰ āĻāĻ•āϟা āϧাāϰāĻŖা āĻšā§ŸāϤো āĻĒাāĻ“ā§Ÿা āϝেāϤে āĻĒাāϰে l 


āĻāϟা āĻĻুāϰ্āĻ­াāĻ—্āϝ āϝে, āϝাāϰা āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤাāϰ āĻŦিāϧাāύ āĻĻেāĻ–ি⧟ে āωāϚ্āϚāύীāϚ āĻŦিāĻ­াāϜāύāĻ•ে āĻŽাāύ্āϝāϤা āĻĻি⧟ে āĻāĻ•āĻļ্āϰেāĻŖীāϰ āĻŽাāύুāώāĻ•ে āĻ…āĻŦāĻĻāĻŽিāϤ āϰাāĻ–āϤে āϚা⧟ āĻāĻŦং āϝাāϰা āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻ…āĻŽাāύāĻŦিāĻ• āĻāχ āϧাāϰāĻŖা āĻĒোāώāĻŖ āĻ•āϰে, āϏāĻ•āϞেāχ āĻāχ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāϟিāϰ āĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤ āĻŦিāϧাāύāĻ•েāχ āĻĒ্āϰাāϧাāύ্āϝ āĻĻে⧟ l āĻāχ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰেāϰ āĻŽূāϞ āϏāϤ্āϝ, āωāĻĻাāϰ āĻāĻŦং āϏাāĻŽ্āϝāĻŽূāϞāĻ• āĻ­াāĻŦāύা āĻ…āύ্āϧāĻ•াāϰেāχ āϰ⧟ে āϝা⧟ l āĻ•ৃāϤিāĻŦিāĻ•ৃāϤিāϰ āϘāύ āĻ•ু⧟াāĻļা⧟ āφāĻŦৃāϤ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা āĻŦিāĻ­্āϰāĻŽ āϏৃāώ্āϟি āĻ•āϰে l āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰāϟিāϰ āϏংāϏ্āĻ•াāϰ āĻ…āϤি āφāĻŦāĻļ্āϝāĻ• l āϝুāĻ•্āϤিāϰ āφāϞোāĻ•ে āĻŦিāϚাāϰ āĻ•āϰāϞে āĻ…āύাāĻŦৃāϤ āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা⧟ āĻŦেāĻĻাāύুāĻŽোāĻĻিāϤ āωāĻĻাāϰāϚিāύ্āϤা āĻāĻŦং āĻŽাāύāĻŦāϤাāϰāχ āϏāύ্āϧাāύ āĻŽেāϞে l āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝাāϏাāĻ—āϰ āĻŦāϞāĻ›েāύ,


Countrymen ! How long will you suffer yourselves to be led away by illusions ! Open your eyes for once and see, that India, once the land of virtue, is being overflooded with the stream of adultery and foeticide.... Dip into the spirit of your Sastras, follow its dictates and you shall be able to remove the foul bolt from the face of your country. (āĻĒৃ : ā§§ā§Šā§Ģ)


āϤāĻĨ্āϝāϏূāϤ্āϰ :


ā§§. āĻŽāύু āϏংāĻšিāϤা - āĻļ্āϰী āĻŽুāϰাāϰিāĻŽোāĻšāύ āĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰী

⧍. āĻŽāύুāϏংāĻšিāϤা - āωāĻĒেāύ্āĻĻ্āϰāύাāĻĨ āĻŽুāĻ–োāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒাāĻĻিāϤ

ā§Š. Lectures on the Ancient History of India : on the Period from 650 to 325 B. C - D. R. Bhandarkar

ā§Ē. The Argumentative Indian - Amartya Sen

ā§Ģ. Sudra Rulers and Officials in Early Medieval Times' in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress - H. S.Kotiyal

ā§Ŧ. āύ্āϝা⧟āĻĒāϰিāϚ⧟ - āĻĒāύ্āĻĄিāϤ āĻŽāĻšাāĻŽোāĻšোāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟ āĻĢāĻŖিāĻ­ূāώāĻŖ āϤāϰ্āĻ•āĻŦাāĻ—ীāĻļ

ā§­. āĻ•ৌāϟিāϞী⧟ āĻ…āϰ্āĻĨāĻļাāϏ্āϤ্āϰ - āĻĄ: āĻ…āύিāϞ āϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦāϏু

ā§Ž. āĻŦেāĻĻ -āϏংāĻ•āϞāύ - āĻĄ: āωāĻĻ⧟āϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦāύ্āĻĻ্āϝোāĻĒাāϧ্āϝা⧟

⧝. āϝাāϜ্āĻžāĻŦāϞ্āĻ•্āϝāϏংāĻšিāϤা ( āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰাāϧ্āϝা⧟:) - āĻĄ: āĻ…āύিāϞāϚāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ āĻŦāϏু

ā§§ā§Ļ. āĻ“ঁ āĻšিāύ্āĻĻুāϤ্āĻŦāĻŽ্ - āϏ্āĻŦাāĻŽী āĻŦেāĻĻাāύāύ্āĻĻ

ā§§ā§§. Marriage of Hindu Widows - Iswarachandra Vidyasagar

⧧⧍. āψāĻļোāĻĒāύিāώāĻĻ - āϝুāϧিāώ্āĻ িāϰ āĻ—োāĻĒ

ā§§ā§Š. Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism? Demolishing a Myth - M. V. Nadkarni

ā§§ā§Ē. Hinduism and Caste - M. V. Nadkarni




Three Graces

 Here we see depicted three partially draped female figures: they are the Three Graces of classical antiquity: Aglaia, Euphrosyne and Thalia. Daughters of Zeus the Graces were often associated respectively with pleasure, chastity and beauty, to the point of becoming true personifications of these characteristics. The lightness of Francesco Furini's brushwork helps to make them float on the clouds. This composition repeats in reverse a painting from 1638 - of the same subject and the same author - now in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. A member of the Tuscan artist's workshop may have reused the cardboard - or the preparatory drawing - to create this work. Franceso Furini was one of the greatest Florentine painters of the first half of the seventeenth century, known for his sensual female nudes and for the nuanced tonal effects. His interest in classical sculpture is evident in his numerous mythological and allegorical paintings from the 1620s and 1630s. Despite this aspect, the figures are reinterpreted through an intense study of nature, thanks to the numerous studies of female nudes of which there remains testimony. Oil on canvas, The National Gallery. London.





The Myth of Prometheus

 


In this famous Greek myth, Prometheus steals fire from the gods as an act of compassion for humanity. For this defiance against the authority of Zeus, Prometheus is banished and chained to a rock on a remote island. Each day his liver is ravaged by an eagle but, due to his immortality, is regenerated by night. There are many versions of the myth, but the central theme evident in each recounting of the tale is the misuse of power and terrible consequences thereafter of ‘playing with fire’.


A similarity can also be seen between the myth of Prometheus and the creation myth of the Garden of Eden. In the Gnostic tradition, the snake or serpent was attributed to Sophia the goddess of wisdom and not Satan as the bible says. Likewise Prometheus, although prone to cunning and trickery, was the bridge between the mortal and immortal realms, and the catalyst for the advancement of the human race. In both myths the incipient stirrings of the higher knowledge and creative inspiration that would see human beings emerge to become sovereigns of the earth is aided by the intervention of the gods.


Myth is the most reliable source of truth in which to perceive the reality of existence. This is because the power of original myth operates in the present without reference to the past. Even to glimpse this opens up a completely new perspective of life on earth. Prometheus chained to the hardness of rock represents the body of humankind bound to the consequences of a loveless existence instigated by the force and corruption in matter. The shackles symbolise the attachment to time which would externalise as the impulse to enslave others against their will.


The eagle at the pinnacle of humanity is the pure intelligence of our cosmic origins. At the world octave, the eagle is symbolic of the ruling classes, dictators and political tyrants who tear at the liver of the weak and exploit the vulnerable for absolute control of the masses. It appears a hopeless situation – and it is while the struggle for retribution rages on. However, the liver is the only human organ able to regenerate itself, and is symbolic of the innate power of the human spirit to rise up from suppression and begin anew. Prometheus knew he had only to wait and undergo his ordeal with courage and fortitude for the moment of freedom to come.


Whether Zeus showed mercy or not is uncertain; but Prometheus was eventually freed by Hercules, the hero of Greek mythology. In the period that followed, the gods gradually disappeared over the horizon of time. They could only appear once at the dawning of humanity and were unable to retain their presence in the hazy psyche of developing Homo sapiens. However, as human beings became aware of their own incredible creative intelligence, the indelible impressions of the antics of the gods and their lust for power over others became an ever-increasing burden. Every civilisation has been the endeavour to create a vision of the gods as a way of life on earth. But as history shows, all attempts to realise this ideal have failed. Apart from a few relics, all that remains are the ruins and dust of forgotten dreams.


The price to be paid for defying the gods was the opening of Pandora’s Box and the subsequent release of all the ills of the world. This was the revenge on Prometheus by Zeus who, in creating Pandora as the first woman, ensured that humankind would never rest for long on earth. But Prometheus had the gift of foresight and knew what Zeus would do. Chained to his rock, he watched as the world was created and degenerated in time through the ravages of war and chaos – just as we’re able to do today in watching the daily news bulletins. The world is the backdrop to the drama of life, and man and woman the players on the screen.


Each of us who are willing must be purified by the spiritual fire back to the original state of being. This is the transformation of self, the greatest agony on earth. Liberation comes at the moment of greatest despair; and yet it’s through this ordeal that the only true authority which resides within the individual can be realised. The mythic truth is that Prometheus is really you and me. How long each of us is bound to the rock of the world is determined by the surrender to our purification within the integrity of the whole.




Ancient Greek fact of the day: the many guises of Zeus •

 


The control of the sky and the father of all 


Zeus was the main divinity of the Greek pantheon, and is certainly one of the oldest gods, with his cult attested in Bronze Age Greece with a mention on the Linear B tablets. 


He has a distinct Indo European origin, with his name deriving from the root “dieu”, meaning day and from the ancient sky god “Dyaus” mentioned in the Rigveda (Sanskrit hymns). This was an appropriate name for Zeus who was also a god that dominated the heavens and was seen as a symbol of light, and creator of all. Indeed, as god of the bright sky, the ancient Greeks linked him to the weather and made a mountain top a specific place for his worship. 


In Homer, Zeus is both father, Ī€ÎąĪ„ÎŽĪ, and king or lord. His paternal side is evident on his temple in Olympia, where he is closely linked to his son Herakles whose labours form the metopes. 


Zeus as king 


Most Greek sources display Zeus as a king, not a tyrant. His main domain is right and justice. Any transgressions of his order is dealt with through divine justice. Thus the suitors in the Odyssey are compelled to suffer for their inhospitable behaviour, with xenia (hospitality) being yet another example of Zeus’ attributes. 


However, Zeus is corruptible with his power: He deposed of his father Cronus who had also castrated his father Uranus. Among Zeus’ formidable display of total power, is the famous punishment given to Prometheus for stealing the Olympian fire, where he was forcibly chained to a rock so that his liver could be removed day after day. This tyrannical style of behaviour is promoted by Ovid in his Metamorphoses where the Roman Zeus, Jupiter, rules with oppression. 


Zeus the protector 


The Greek word for fence is herkos, and herkeiosis was a further epithet of Zeus. According to Homer, the altar of Zeus Herkeios generally stood in the courtyard before the house, where sacrifices and libations were offered to him and in return he would provide valuable protection to the oikos, house. 

These are just a few of Zeus’ guises. He in fact has many more! From saviour figure to protector of friendship. He was also omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent….as his mythol

ogy accentuates.








Tribal Fairs and festivals of Purulia

 Purulia is a land of tribal festivals in West Bengal. Read this article to know about the tribal festivals in Purulia.


Here are the main tribal fairs and festivals in Purulia district of West Bengal.

Shiber Gajan: Gajan or Shiber Gajan is a famous festival in Purulia district.This festival is also popular as Chait Parab, Charak Puja. Shiber Gajan is held between middle of March to end of May every year.






Disum Sendra: This is a hunting festival of Santhals at Ayodhya Hill in Purulia during Baishakhi Purnima. Disum Sendra is also known as Shikar Parab.

Puja of Dharma Thakur and Mela: This local festival of Purulia is held from mid of April to mid of May every year.


Rohini Utsav: This festival in Purulia is celebrated by cultivators. On 13 Jaistha every year, the cultivators sow seeds and celebrate this Rohini Utsav festival.

Erohk Sim: This festival is similar to Rohini Utsav and this festival is celebrated by Santhals in the month of Asad (15 June to 15 July).


Batauli: Mundas celebrate the sow seed festival.





Manasa Puja: On the last day of Shravan month (15-16 August) every year,  puja of Manasa, the Goddess of snake is performed.


Karam Parab: This festival is celebrated in Purulia after completion of paddy cultivation.

Chata Parab:  Funds of this festival comes from rich people of the society.  Chata Parab is celebrated throughout the night with dance and songs.









Bhadu: Bhadu is goddess among the backward classes like Bagdis and Bouris. Bhadu Puja is a famous festival in Purulia and also in nearby district Bankura.

Bandhna Parab: Bandhna Parab is also a local festival in Purulia which is held every year after the Kali Puja. This festival or parab is famous among the Kurmi, Bhumij, Korha, Lodha communities. The same festival for Santhals and Mundas is known as Sohray.

Jathel Utsav: Jathel Utsav is mainly celebrated by Santhals in Purulia during 15 November to 15 December every year.


Raas mela: Raas Utsav or Raas Mela is celebrated in many parts of West Bengal and Purulia district is one of them. Raas mela is celebrated mainly in Purulia town in Purulia district during Agrahayan Purnima.





Tushu: Tushu Puja is celebrated by rural women in Purulia district. Tushu songs are very popular in Purulia.


Bhansingh Puja and Parab: In Purulia, Bhansingh is regarded as God of cattle. This Puja and festival is normally celebrated during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar. Magh month falls during 15 January to 15 February.


Akhan Jatra: Akhan Jatra is regarded as an auspicious day in Purulia which falls on the first day of Magh month according to Bengali calendar.


Chandi Puja: Chandi Puja is celebrated during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar. A popular fair is associated with this Chandi Puja in Purulia.

Magh Sim: A famous festival of Santhals which is held every year during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar.


Baha: Baha is a spring festival to Santhals in Purulia. Night long dance and songs are associated with this festival. The same festival of Mundas is known as  Sarjan Baha.

Bhejabindha: Cock fight is very popular among the tribal in Purulia. Bhejabindha is a festival of Santhals and cock fighting is the main event of this festival.


"Mother's Hands " khachkar

 This unique "Mother's Hands" khachkar, dedicated to the memory of the victims of the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, is located in Lowell (Massachusetts, USA). The stone is carved in the form of caring and tired mother's hands, which seem to be made of wool khachkar.


The monument is unusual in that it is located in front of the state government building, unlike other monuments, which are more often located in the area of ​​Armenian churches.


According to the creator of the memorial Daniel Hejinyan, the pattern symbolizes the prayers and hopes that Armenians around the world say.





Astagik Gods -Armenian Mythology


 Astgik Gods - Armenian Mythology


Early in a prehistoric era, a worshiper was considered the gods of fertility and love, and later on the light of the sky was considered its incarnation. In a while later she became the goddess of love, the virgin beauty, the source of water and spring.


According to the Armenian mythology, Astagik was a lover and the prince of God Fahaken, the god of sun, strength and courage at the ancient Armenians. And she was the sister of the mother of the gods, Anahid - known as the mother of the armenians.


The name "Astghik-Astghik" is a short term for the Armenian word "Astgh" which means "Star." The word derived from the initial root of the Indo-European "h2st ḗr".


The main temple of Astghik was in Ashtishat (Daron), north of Mosh city, and other temples and places of worship were also located in many cities and villages across the Armenian highlands, such as Balati Mountain, southwest of Lake Van and in Artamit (12 km from Van).


There is a belief that unique monuments dating back to prehistoric era, especially known as Dragon Stones, and found in many historical provinces of Armenia such as Taik, Javakhk, Argatsutton, Kigarconic, etc. are additional demonstrations of Astaghik worship.


Fortunately, many Astaghik worships were saved, including the Eid of Vartavar - Vartavar, which is considered a day dedicated to it, celebrated by the Armenian people to this day in the middle of July every year. On this day, people spray water on each other in squares and streets collectively, believing that it washes away evil and brings good luck, and a certain religious rituals are held in the Gharni Al-Gharni temple in Armenia to preserve this historical tradition that has survived for thousands of years.




Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary: Where Water, Wings, and Time Meet Some places announce themselves with mountains or monuments. Bharatpur does not. It reveals itself slowly — in ripples of water, in the sudden lift of wings, in the quiet patience of a bird waiting for the right moment to strike. Located in eastern Rajasthan, Keoladeo Ghana National Park, popularly known as the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, is one of those rare landscapes where nature and history have grown together. It is not untouched wilderness, nor is it purely man-made. It exists in between — shaped by geography, altered by humans, and perfected by birds. A Land Shaped by Geography Before It Was Shaped by Humans Bharatpur lies at an ecological crossroads. To the west stretch the ancient Aravali ranges, among the oldest mountain systems in the world — worn down, rocky, dry, and quiet. To the east begin the fertile Gangetic plains, flatter and more water-abundant. Between these two regions lies a gentle depression in the land, where seasonal rivers like the Gambhir and Banganga once spread their monsoon waters. This region was never meant to hold deep water. Instead, it absorbed floods, released them slowly, and returned to grassland. That natural rhythm changed in the 18th century, when the rulers of Bharatpur constructed the Ajan Bund, an earthen dam built to protect nearby settlements from flooding. Unintentionally, a wetland was born. Water lingered longer than expected. Silt settled. Aquatic plants appeared. Fish followed. And soon after, birds began to arrive — first seasonally, then in vast numbers. From Royal Hunting Ground to Protected Sanctuary During the 19th and early 20th centuries, this wetland became a favored duck-shooting reserve for the Maharajas of Bharatpur and British officials. Ironically, this exclusive use prevented farming and urban expansion, allowing the habitat to survive while many other wetlands disappeared. The turning point came when Dr. Salim Ali, India’s pioneering ornithologist, recognized the extraordinary ecological value of the site. His advocacy transformed perceptions of the wetland — from a hunting ground to a sanctuary deserving protection. This led to a series of recognitions: Declared a Bird Sanctuary in 1976 Designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance Inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 What makes Bharatpur unique is that it proves conservation does not always begin with untouched nature — sometimes it begins with correcting our relationship with altered landscapes. A Wetland Designed by Water, Perfected by Birds Keoladeo Ghana is a shallow wetland, rarely deeper than one or two meters. This single feature explains much of its biodiversity. Shallow wetlands warm quickly, grow food rapidly, and create a variety of micro-habitats: Open water for ducks and geese Mudflats for waders and sandpipers Marshes and reed beds for nesting birds Wooded patches for roosting and breeding colonies The sanctuary is a mosaic rather than a uniform lake, and birds occupy it with remarkable precision. Every species seems to know exactly where it belongs. The Arrival of the Migrants Each winter, Bharatpur becomes a global meeting point. Birds arrive from Siberia, Central Asia, Europe, and the Tibetan plateau, following the Central Asian Flyway. Some travel thousands of kilometers, crossing deserts, seas, and the towering Himalayas. Bar-headed geese, famous for flying at extreme altitudes, descend gracefully onto the water. Northern shovelers and teals form floating carpets across the marshes. Painted storks and Asian open-billed storks feed methodically in the shallows. The elegant Sarus crane, India’s tallest flying bird, performs slow, ritualistic dances that seem untouched by time. Once, the sanctuary welcomed the Siberian crane — tall, white, and fragile. Their disappearance from Bharatpur is a quiet tragedy, reminding us that even the most faithful migrants cannot survive when wetlands vanish along their journey. The Aravali Connection: Dry Hills Supporting Wet Wings Though Bharatpur is a wetland, its story cannot be told without the Aravali range. The Aravalis may appear barren, but they regulate climate, slow desert winds, and feed seasonal water systems. Birds adapted to dry forests and scrublands — larks, pipits, bushchats, raptors — depend on wetlands like Bharatpur during migration, breeding, or drought periods. Thus, Bharatpur functions as a refuge ecosystem, supported by the broader Aravali landscape. Wetland and woodland, water and stone — both are necessary for regional biodiversity. More Than Birds: The Invisible Web of Life While birds are the most visible residents, the sanctuary’s foundation lies beneath the water. Fish recycle nutrients and sustain higher predators. Amphibians and reptiles control insect populations. Wetland plants purify water, trap carbon, and stabilize soil. Even microorganisms play their role quietly, maintaining balance. This unseen life is what allows the spectacular bird diversity to exist. A Wetland That Needs Care, Not Neglect Unlike untouched forests, Bharatpur survives through active management. Water must be released at the right time. Invasive plants must be controlled. Seasonal rhythms must be respected. Climate change, upstream water diversion, and declining rainfall pose new challenges. The sanctuary today is a lesson in modern conservation — showing that protection alone is not enough. Understanding ecological processes is equally vital. Why Bharatpur Matters Today In a country where wetlands are rapidly disappearing, Bharatpur stands as proof that: Man-made wetlands can support rich biodiversity Landscape-level conservation is essential Migratory birds connect continents, not just countries Water is the most powerful driver of life in dry regions Leaving Bharatpur When you leave the sanctuary, it does not follow you loudly. There are no dramatic cliffs or roaring rivers to remember. Instead, there is a quiet realization — that life persists not through force, but through balance. Bharatpur teaches patience. It teaches listening. And above all, it teaches that when water is allowed to stay, life will always return.

  Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary : Where Water, Wings, and Time Meet Some places announce themselves with mountains or monuments. Bharatpur does n...