Book Review

 

Book Review:

Joseph S. Thong. (2012). Head Hunters Culture- Historic Culture of Nagas. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. Pp. 175 + xv. ISBN: 81-8324-154-9. Price: Rs. 495/-.

The author of this book has presented descriptive information of the Naga tribe who were once known for head- hunting. Head- hunter’s culture is a very old tradition once practiced by the Nagas, inhabited in the states of Nagaland, Manipur, Assam in India and in Myanmar who migrated from the South East Asian countries long past. This tribe is differing from rest of the communities of India in origin, language, food habits, dress pattern, beliefs, religion, social customs and tradition. It is said that they used to chop the head of their enemies after the battle is over and bring those at home as a memory of victory in addition to prove their valour and to appease their god in order to increase their fertility, good luck and well being of their people. The practise of head- hunting resides in the heart of the Naga culture and all other life cycle rituals and activities and also inter woven with this. The inseparable part of the Naga culture like village society, construction of house, construction of village gate and its decorations, chieftainship, dress and ornaments, occupation, rituals, marriage, clan system, fairs and festivals, etc. are all centred round and linked up with head- hunting and Feast of Merit which are same in almost all the sections of Naga tribe except some minor variations from village to village, clan to clan, etc. This is a distinctive feature of the Naga tribe which makes it different from the rest of Indian communities which is generally governed by caste system, zamindari system, jajmani system, etc.

Although many books has been written on Nagas by many British administrators, Christian Missionaries, Naga National Workers, journalists, travellers, military personels, local administrators, academicians, researchers and son on, but so far as the author’s knowledge, no comprehensive book that covering all the aspects of the culture of the head- hunting community has been written to quench our thrust for knowledge. Hence, through this book the author tried to present us a complete picture of Naga culture. Various components of traditional Naga society have been described in brief.

In present day also, in the interior rural villages one can see the historic culture still prevalent without any change and are transmitted from one generation to another through the aged people whose ways of life have not changed for centuries. Apart from it, the material culture likes the wood carving craft, cloth weaving, pot making, dresses and ornaments, weapons, tattooing, dyeing, folk songs, dances, etc. also served the author as primary data to reconstruct the traditional culture of the Nagas. For the collection of first hand data he also applied  participation observation method. The data are also collected from the information received from the informant from the field and from the books listed in the bibliography. For the collection of data, the author has gone through very systematic method like library method, historical method, documentary method, questionnaire method, schedule method, interview method and participant observation method.

This book serves as a guideline for the students, research scholars, academicians and teachers of Social Sciences like anthropology, ethnography, sociology, culture, tribal studies, law, society and technology. The book is also very helpful to know more about the life style of the Naga head- hunters. Apart from it, it will serve to the candidates who are preparing for competitive exams, college and university exams related to tribal culture and society. The administrators also be benefited from this book who were serving in tribal and backward areas as this book is proving information related to tribal culture, their ways of life, tribal beliefs, values, customary laws and justice, political and social organization and other relevant informations. Through this book the author tried to document those lost intangible and tangible culture heritages that are lost or about to lose.

Published in: 

Mekal Insights, Year 12 Vol. IV, Issue 1. ISSN: 0975-010X. (p.110-111).

 

Threats to Archaeological Sites and Suggestion to Generate Awareness among the People: A Brief Communication

 

Threats to Archaeological Sites and Suggestion to Generate Awareness among the People: A Brief Communication

Introduction:

Archaeology is the primary source of knowledge of evolution of primitive culture. In fact Archaeology is the only sources to know the past human activities, when the written records are totally absent. Simply It has been defined as the “Science of ancient remains” i.e. tools, pottery, artifacts, monuments etc. Moreover, systematic and scientific study of past remains (left by past human) considered it as ‘Science’. Science, which brings out some absolute indisputable fact. All Archaeological site and material spread over the surface and beneath the surface are invaluable; nevertheless some Archaeological sites and monuments have been reached the verge of ending. The growth of mass tourism, natural disasters, environmental degradation, rapidly increasing urbanization, Religious conflicts are among many threats to archaeological sites and heritage. They must be preserved and conserved and for that Education plays very important role.

However, it is the matter of debate whether our cultural heritage is being protected. Are rules for protection and conservation being enforced?  What are the hurdles? What the steps can be taken to remove hurdles to protect archaeological sites and monuments. Whatever problem is there we should understand it and try to resolve from the point of view of economic interest, as well as cultural interest.

Through this paper we are trying to enlighten the type of threats and solution to preserve and conserve the Archaeological sites and monuments.

According to the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 charged the central/state Department of Archaeology with responsibility for the protection of important cultural sites. Under the Act, sites had been classified under three categories:

1)      Monuments of national importance which are protected by the Central Government;

2)      Monuments of religious or cultural importance which are protected by the State government; and

3)      Monuments which are neither centrally nor state protected, but which are considered to be an important part of cultural heritage.

Under the same Act, charged authorities are permitted to take suitable measures to ensure the preservation of protected sites and monuments under threat from misuse, decay or economic activity.

Above clauses say about only protected archaeological sites and monuments. But question arises for unprotected archaeological sites and monuments which are under threat. The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), a private non- governmental organization (NGO) based in New Delhi, has estimated that there are 70,000- odd historical monuments in India. Other estimates put the figure at more than 100,000; Whereas Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) declares 5,000-odd monuments out of 70,000 as ‘protected monuments’.    The ASI is solely responsible for those 5,000-odd monuments, but the rest of the monuments which are more than 50,000 in number, are completely unattended. The fate of unprotected monuments and sites is highly uncertainly. 

Negligence: Negligence is the one of the biggest threat to protected as well as unprotected sites and monuments. If we see the Delhi, capital of India there are eight such monuments, including Masjid Moth, Lal Gumbad , Humayun’s Tomb and Khirki Mosque among others, are lying in a neglect object according to ASI (Archaeological survey of India). These monuments are under grave threat from garbage dumps emitting noxious gases. Tourists, who enthusiastically come to visit Historic Monuments, are welcomed by mounds of garbage and foul smell.

For example, a Lodhi era tomb which is unprotected monument based in New Delhi had been converted into living quarters for a family for three generations.

In March 2009, The times of India carried a story of encroachment of the Atgah Khan tomb located in the Nizammuddin dargah area of New Delhi has been used encroached by 12 families by INTACH. In December 2009, the print media broke a story on how the prtotected haveli of the great Urdu poet Mirza Ghalib was used to host a wedding reception.

Like protected sites there are many unprotected and unlisted sites and monuments such as Someshwar Temples and Manikgarh Fort in Chandrapur of Madhya Pradesh, and Tipu’s Fort in Shrirangapatanam, Mysore are neglected by government and civic body.                                

Theft and Smuggling: Smuggling is a very serious threat to ancient antiquities all over the world. If we look back into our history we will find that there are many political up and down in every part of the world including our country which led to looting and plundering of wealth and property. India has a long history of smuggling of antiquities e.g. robbery in ancient temples by Mahmud Ghazni and other Muslim invaders. Later on during the colonial period British officials has also sent precious artifacts, stones, sculptures and paintings to Great Britain. In present day scenario we find that a lot of sculptures and other artifacts are smuggled from various places of India because of the very high rate these antiquities have high demand in international market. Very recently the noble medal of Rabindranath Tagore has been stolen from the museum of Santi Niketan and till now it was not recovered. This is a very shameful act from our part. Such state of affairs is not only a national crime but also a cultural sin.

Demolition of archaeological Monuments: Unawareness towards archaeological sites and antiquities led to the demolition of cultural heritage. Because of the greed and profit builders build their construction on ancient sites, stone crushers are set near hilly areas and ancient caves consist of precious rock paintings were damaged by their economic activities. If some how the basement and structure of temple or ancient monument is found unearth in village area, the villagers usually take out the bricks, stones, wood and other important things of that monument for the construction of their own houses or they sell it. Villagers sometimes apply cement on sculptures and monuments because of this act dating becomes difficult and often the its historical importance get lost. Application of oil paint on the temple wall sometimes destroys ancient wall painting. Application of sindur (vermilion) on sculpture demolished their identity and it become very difficult to know iconography character of that sculpture.

See the pathetic condition of 1,000-year-old Siva temple, protected by state government’s Archaeology Department based at Manambadi village neglected. Now it is facing the threat of demolition for expansion of a road under the Thanjavur-Vikkiravandi four-way project of the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI). Temple is in pathetic condition. It’s vimana in a dilapidated condition and enveloped by creepers. The stone structure below the vimana, with intricate sculptures, and the sanctum sanctorum with a Siva lingam are intact. 

Destruction by tourists: Cultural heritage are important tourist spots for both national and international visitors. Generally tourists who come to see the nation's heritage and monuments celebrate picnic and parties there. Eating, drinking and other activities are unlawful works which are performed. Tourists write their names and address, spit on the walls of the monuments disrupt the nature of that. This is a very shameful act. The activities of such literate fools brought our cultural sites in danger.

See the photograph where we can see the grotesque things done by human being. You have seen the walls or the pillars of some old monuments being scribbled and scratched and have the most unwanted things written. In every Historic monument, we find such nonsense arts of some vile artists who do not know the value of cultural monuments but are on the verge of destroying them. People don’t aware the significance of beauty and don’t have the sense of respect towards cultural assets. 

Encroachment: Encroachment is also a big problem because it is responsible for the demolition and destruction of archaeological monuments and sites. Because of the increasing price of land, unavailability of land and space crisis has brought archaeological sites in danger zone. Temple lands are often being encroach by villagers and used for cattle grazing. Builders are also capturing the archaeological areas and uprooted monuments. This is the main problem in modern day. Many of the archaeological sites in urban India are encroached by the public buildings and hotels. This often condemned the beauty of the monument. Apart from it due to pollution and over population of the cities led to the damage of the ancient monument. Example may be given to Taj Mahal of Agra and Victoria Memorial Hall of Kolkata. The milky white marble monuments are getting faded and becoming black due to the pollution. Smoke release from the factories, oil refineries, cars and street food stalls is the major cause of pollution. Now problem is becoming dangerous because of the fast development of cities. Need a strong and systematic step to tackle such type of problem.

We found the latest example of encroachment threat of archaeological site in Sisupalgarh, Bhubaneswar. On 24^th June 2014 Express news service published the pathetic condition of Sisupalgarh, 2,500- year-old fortified settlement. Though it is protected site but there is no conservation plan for it by ASI or State Government.

His site excavated by B.B. Lal in 1948-50. The area was spread over 562.68 acres of land, but today only 0.775 acres remain under ASI’s control. While 40 to 45 acres is under State Government, the rest are private land holdings. According to newspaper more than 2,000 buildings have come up inside the fort area, violating norms of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010. Many more structures have come up within 100-metre radius of the site, particularly the 16 pillars of Sisupalgarh.

Same activity has been done in Chandrawati, ancient site of Udaipur. For an industrial corridor project some portion of land of Chandrawati site has been acquisition by railway department, where a railway line has been proposed.

Natural Disaster:  Natural phenomenons come without knocking the door, when it comes, destroy everything. Catastrophic damages by earthquake, flood, cloud burst, heavy rainfall and volcano eruption or others disaster either loss of life or ruin of structural buildings. Flood in Srinagar, cloud burst in Uthrakhand,earthquake in gujrat, tsunahmi in Tamilnadu are few example of natural disaster which ruin life and our valuable cultural assets which never get back.

 AHMEDABAD: Feb. 2, 2001. The 600 year old monument Jhulta Minara or Shaking Minarets was among the dozens of ancient monuments which partially collapsed or were damaged during the 7.9 magnitude earthquake.

Archaeology and Education:

As Archaeology has contributed a lot to the history, culture and other social and life sciences, it has been recognized as a reliable source of knowledge. In India, particularly, historic archaeology has been related to the background of traditional norms of our past. The reason is clear in terms of as set chronological documentation of different historical periods. India has the quality of unity in diversity. People belonging to various languages, religions, castes, colour, creed and ethnic groups are living together in this land. Apart from it India possesses long history. Our present political, social and economical conditions are deeply rooted in the past. Hence, study of History is very important in India. From primary level to the higher level of education, History is one of the major subjects in Indian education. It is necessary for every child to know about the country's past. Knowledge of history is not only useful to know about the past, but it is also useful to solve present problems and ensure a bright future. As we know History and Archaeology are closely related, problems in country's history and causes of social- economical problems have generally been investigated by archaeological researchers and scholars. It is very important to train and educate children in matters related to archaeology and to generate awareness among them in order to protect and preserve the national heritage.

 

Various aspects of our cultural heritage like the major cultural traditions, their origin and present significance must be included in the syllabus. The different types of rituals, religious ceremonies and other traditions which were performed in the past should be taught to the students at various levels of our education system in an interesting manner. As we know that in Indian universities Archaeology is considered under the subject matter of History whereas in America Archaeology is taught as a subject matter of Anthropology. This diversification of subject can also be formulated in India. The formulation of diversification of subjects can also be introduced in India. Archaeology should link up with other disciplines also. Archaeology is related to various other subjects. So, if this subject is taught with the other subjects thin generally people get aware with this subject. Environmental awareness, division of labour, division of social responsibilities and ethical values are normally found in cultural tradition. If the knowledge of cultural traditions and their origin would be given to the students in scientific manner, then it will be useful to understand present social, economic, religious and political scenario. The education approach towards Archaeology should aim at:

 

a: Creation of awareness among the people.

b: Projection of archaeological findings to academic circles and common people through popular media.

c: Historical treatment of cultural traditions.

d: Adaptation of  instructional measures.

e: A clear plan and vision for future research.

 

Archaeology today needs an educative solution with a meaningful cause. Archaeology as a specialized subject is not merely the issue of classroom study or limited up to books. it should be spread to the masses informally and formally.

 

The education system today needs to be modified. There should be a basic course of Archaeology at school level. There should be a specialized course at university at Graduation level and the research oriented course works at Post Graduation. The task of educating the student should be limited to the teachers who were fully trained in excavation, exploration, documentation, preservation and conservation.

 

In view for promoting archaeological researches a fruitful planning is essential with joint ventures of Archaeological Survey of India, University Grant Commission, State Archaeology Department, various research organizations and institutions. Infact employment opportunities in the field of archaeological investigations, tourism and heritage management should be increased. Proper funding should be there to carry out such projects actively and in scientific manner. There should be no administrative hurdles. Due to lack of job opportunities students generally do not prefer to take up this subject as their career. Now a day they run for the professional courses. Hence, job opportunity must be there in the field of archaeology.

 

Suggestions:

In modern days a firm consciousness in archaeology among all the classes and masses is necessary. Because of the absence of this, many sites and remains are destroyed and shifted elsewhere illegally simply due to ignorance. Such practices damage the multi dimensional cultural heritage and national pride. Some suggestions are given below in order to increase the awareness.

a: Active grass root level of workers by offering them salary on voluntary basis for the protection, safe guard and preservation of the archaeological materials. Similar services may also assigned to many NGO's, self motivated organizations and motivated persons.

b: There must be an effective communication between the grass root workers and archaeological authorities.

c: Mass communication and information technology should work to create such awareness among the people. Seminar, workshop may also be conduct at various universities and social organizations. It may also include display of exhibitions, dramas, films, websites or such other creative programmes.

Conclusion:

In present scenario, throughout the country threat to Archaeological sites and monuments has become serious problem.  Despite the existence of legislation, national policy and international conventions for preservation and conservation of Archaeological sites and monuments but still damage and destruction are routinely occurring because in our country the level of public awareness is low towards archaeological monuments. For this government needs to introduce Archaeology as a subject in preliminary level of education. People should know the value of cultural heritage monuments since childhood because monuments present who we are and where we come from. Thus, they will take interest and make programmes for protecting invaluable monuments. Government and Non-Government Organization should spread the awareness among the people through regular workshops, interactive sessions, seminars, conferences and media.

Furthermore, Government, Non-Government organization and citizen of nation have to give much more attention to protect cultural heritage monuments which are like grappling irons that bind one generation to another.

Published in: 1.      EUPHEUS (2015), Volume: 2, No. 2. ISSN: 2348-9774. (p. 67-71).

 

 

Book Review

 

Book Review:

Satyajeet Roy (2012).  Culture of India. New Delhi: Abhijeet Publications. Pp. 280.  ISBN: 978-93-5074-022-4. Price: Rs. 1070/-

Reviewed by

Pritish Chaudhuri

pritish.chaudhuri@gmail.com

Abstract

The following article is on a book review. This studied book provides a general view about the culture and heritage of India. Apart from providing the history of India this book also highlights the major religions, fairs and festivals, music, literature, diversity, etc.

India has a very rich cultural background along with very ancient cultural heritage preserved for thousands of years. The geographical vastness, varied religion, different languages and dialects, population variation, etc. has given birth to cultural spectrum. The other factors that also added flavour to its cultural spectrum are art, literature, fairs and festivals, customs, beliefs, tribal culture, flora and fauna, etc. The author has focused on all these above mentioned points in this book. He mainly highlights the Indian religions, society, fairs and festivals, dance, music, paintings, literature, languages, ethnicity, rituals, etc.

India is a birth place and home land of world’s famous religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. These religion originates in India and spread all over the world. Later on the culture of India was influenced by the Islamic invasions and subsequent Islamic rule from 10^th century. The Persian, Arabic and Turkish cultures had also left a deep impact on Indian culture. For example, the Mughals brought the Central Asian culture with them which was later on amalgamated in Indian culture. Indian culture has been influenced by various religions, cultures and traditions of the world from time to time which resulted in the mixture of values, beliefs, folk idioms, art forms, etc. The regional diversity, languages, religion, etc. has given birth to different customs. The varied forms of Indian culture exist in their totality all through the Indian territory. The religious influence is quite prevalent in its classical form chiefly found in rural areas and small villages, whereas the urban life is now a days influenced by the globalization. The British ruled over India for nearly two hundred years which paved the way to imbibe western culture and practices. Now English is spoken and understood in almost all over India. It is also a co- official language of India. According to the author, India is divided into many parts in terms of linguistic diversity; two hundred sixteen of them are spoken by a group of ten thousand persons or more. All the languages are mainly derived from Indi- Aryan languages and Dravidian languages. The Indo- Aryan languages are mainly spoken in north India whereas the Dravidian languages are spoken in south India. According to the constitution of India, both Hindi and English are the official languages for communication. The other twenty two languages are scheduled for official use by the State Government. The author has also provided the list of other eighteen significant languages (Aangika, Kokborok, Wagdi, Marwari, Chhattishgarhi, Magahi, Awadhi, Tulu, Kodava, Dogri, Persian, French, Portuguese, Bodo, Santhali, Sikkimese, Dzongkha and Dakkhini) and one minority language ‘Mahl’ which is very informative to know about the linguistic diversity of India. Sanskrit is not only the oldest language of India but also one of the classical languages of the world and is equated with Latin and Greek languages of Europe. This language has wide cultural and religious significance.

From the various periods of history, the culture of India was influenced and moulded by the invaders and immigrants who resulted in the mixture and absorption of various traditions, customs, beliefs, ideas, etc. The practices, rituals, languages, traditions, art, architecture and monuments are the examples of this co- mingling of culture from centuries.

In present day, there is cultural diversity all over India. All the parts and regions of India have its own distinct cultural identity. Despite of its diverse nature, India is known for its ‘unity in diversity’ because of its common history.

Conclusion:

This book serves as a reference book and guideline for the students, research scholars, academicians and teachers of Social Sciences like history, culture, tribal studies, law, society and technology. The book is also very helpful to know more about the rich cultural heritage of India. Apart from it, it will serve to the candidates who are preparing for competitive exams, college and university exams related to India history, culture, tribal culture and society. The administrators also are benefited from this book that as this book is proving information related to the past history and present scenario of India tribal and other relevant information. The purpose of this book review is to provide a reference to the scholars who are searching theme on the history, culture, diversity related matters of India. Sometimes all books are not always available everywhere, hence, book review serves as a summery in order to provide a basic information on the related issues.

Published in:   ADROITIC, Volume. 2, No. 1. ISSN: 2349-6274. (p. 30-31).

****

Book Review

 

Book Review:

Paulinus R. Marak. (2005). The Garo Tribal Religion: Beliefs and Practices. Kolkata: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies. Anshah Publishing House.  Pp. 122. ISBN: 81-8364-002-8. Price: Rs. 280/-, US$ 18.

Reviewed by

Dr. Pritish Chaudhuri

pritish.chaudhuri@gmail.com

PGT, History

Central Public Sr. Sec. School, Udaipur,

Rajasthan.

 

The present book presented us with a vivid description of the origin and migration of the Garo tribe. It describes the existence of the Garos with the different tribal groups settled in the Garo hills of Meghalaya. The basic content of the study is focused on the beliefs and practices of the said tribe. The author throws light on the Garo religion. The Garos are descended from Tibeto- Burman race of the Tibeto- Chinese family. Originally they lived in north western China between the upper waters of Yang-tse-kiang and Ho-ang-ho. Then they migrated to India and gradually by passing through various places of West Bengal and Assam finally they settled down in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya and in some parts of Bangladesh for centuries. On the basis of the cultural and linguistic differences the Garos are divided into eleven groups. There is a great controversy regarding the origin of the Garos. Now they call themselves as ‘A-chiks’.

One of the characteristic features about this tribe is their ancient animistic religious beliefs and practices which they perform. They worship numerous deities in day to day life. They earnestly believe in supernatural powers. They perform many rituals, ceremonies including animal sacrifice in order to appease those deities. This entire religious system controls their life and they pray to god to secure their life and wellbeing of their own people.  The Garo people believe in the existence of good and evil spirits. They call them as ‘Mites’. There is no written record about their religion but only by oral transmission, their myths, beliefs, rituals, etc. are still practices. The Nokma and Kamal has a very important role to play in the Garo village society. The Nokma is the village chief and Kamal is the village priest. Both hold higher status in the local social hierarchy. The village chief is the politically powerful person whereas the priest is the spiritual leader. All the matters related to society, disputes, etc. are settled down by their village chief. Kamal is responsible for the performance of all village festivals, rituals and ceremonies. He use to conduct marriage ceremony and death rituals both.  

The Garos are mostly the agriculturist community and they practice jhum cultivation. Their belief in dreams is strictly followed. As for instance, in the first ceremony of jhum cultivation, if anybody have a bad dream he abandons the plot of land which he was about to cultivate. On the contrary, if anybody dreams of plenty of sand collected in the front place of his house, it signifies that he will get plenty of production from the field. In this way there are number of dreams that are related to their beliefs and incorporate those in their real life. However, we can call it a blind faith or superstition.

Many religious ceremonies are performed in connection with ailments. The Garos offer sacrifices for their sick people. They have a strong belief that the sickness, diseases, bad omen or curses fallen over them because of their disobedience against the law of nature and deities.

The author has also mentioned the funeral ceremony and the concept of death and rebirth of the Garo tribe in detail. There are many rituals associated with this ceremony. According to Garo legend, there is no occurrence of death as such. All human are immortal and they are reincarnated to a new body. The author has pointed out all the process and system of cremation in a chronological manner. Besides the religious beliefs, they also believe in certain superstition that death can be caused by a simple process of practising a kind of snippings. Witchcraft, black magic, ghosts and spirits are common among them.

Although majority of the Garo population are converted into Christianity, but there are many ancient festivals and functions that are still now practiced. The conversion of Christianity has affected their ethnic religion. From all those above mentioned beliefs and practices the author has traced the process of acculturation. The ancient traditions still inherit in the mind of the Garos.

This book is very helpful for the future researchers and scholars who are willing to work in this particular tribe. This book will help as a guideline or as reference book that gives us a baseline survey data about the culture of Garo tribe of Meghalaya with its geographical location.

Published in :    Sodh Patrika, Year. 70, No. 1-4. ISSN: 0975-6868. (p. 208-209).

 

****

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Brief Communication about the Padhar

 

A Brief Communication about the Padhar

 

 

Introduction:

The tribals constitute a share of about eight per cent of the country’s population with more than 500 different ethnic groups having special culture traits and identity and are at various stages of socio-economic progress and face handicap on account of isolation. Consequently they have not been able to get a just and rightful role in the larger society around them and have not been fully integrated into national stream. This is truer in case of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups. Article 342 of the Constitution of India specified about the Scheduled Tribes.

 

The term ‘tribe’ is said to be derived from the Roman word ‘tribua’, which denote a particular social group or a political unit living in their own occupied territory. Later on this term came to be used in general term as a synonym for primitive social unit. In India, the term ‘tribe’ was first used by the British during the colonial period. They refer it to those sects of people having distinct characteristics features, social back ground, economic status, physical structure and so on. Fried (1966, 1975) argued that “tribes were produced in course of the evolution of the state in different parts of the world and under varying periods of time and in some regions the process dated only from the last two centuries. The distinct meaning of ‘tribe’ separated from ‘nation’ emerged in the first half of the nineteenth century, when early anthropologists and sociologists associated it with the concept of primitive society.” On the basis of anthropological characteristics, tribal people of India are considered to be aboriginal (Dash Sharma, 2006). Risley (1891) has defined the term ‘tribe’ as, “it is a collection of families or a group of families, bearing a common name which as a rule does not denote any specific occupation, generally claiming common descent from a mythical or historical ancestry, occasionally the name is derived from an animal but in some parts of the country, the tribe is held together only by the obligation of kinship, member speaking the same language and occupy a tract of the country.”   

 

According to Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India, there are certain tribal communities who are having low level of literacy, declining or stagnant population, and pre-agricultural level of technology and economically backward. 75 such groups in 17 States/Union Territories have been identified and categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups constitute the most vulnerable among tribal groups. There are five Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups with around one lakh population in Gujarat. These are concentrated mainly in high rainfall districts of Surat, Valsad and Dangs, although there is some scattered PVTG population in Sabarkantha, Narmada, Ahmedabad, Surendranagar and Junagadh districts.

 

 

	PVTGs	Male	Female	Total population	Total Families
1	Padhar	13,114	11,785	24,899	4711
2	Kolgha	20,876	20,520	41,396	8879
3	Kathodi	6,477	6,215	12,692	2905
4	Kotwalia	10,817	10,594	21,411	5226
5	Siddhi	4,514	4,302	8,816	1858
		55,798	53,416	109,214	23479

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Sachivalay, Gandhinagar 2007-12)

 

Padhars are involved in fishing in Nalsarovar lake of Ahmedabad and Surendranagar districts, Kolghas used to catch frogs, Kathodis used to process catechu (kattha) and are daily wage labourers working in agricultural fields, Kotwalias are dependent on bamboo work, and over the period, Government has provided them some land who are relatively poor. Siddhis are a unique community located in few villages in and around Gir forest. They are Negroid.

 

Population of PVTGs in Gujarat in last four decades (1971 to 2001):

Name of the PVTG group	1971 Census	1981 Census	1991 Census	2001 Census
Padhar	4758 (0.21%)	10587 (0.26%)	15896 (0.30%)	22421 (   )
Kolgha	29494 (1.28%)	62232 (1.34%)	82679 (0.65%)	48419 (   )
Kathodi	2939 (0.08%)	2546 (0.05%)	4773 (0.08%)	5820 (   )
Kotwalia	12902 (0.37%)	17759 (0.32%)	19569 (0.29%)	21453 (  )
Siddi	4482 (0.11%)	5429 (0.10%)	6336 (0.12%)	8662 (   )

(Source: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat (according to census report)

 

Growth rate of PVTGs in Gujarat during last four decades (1971-2001):

 

Name of the PVTG group	Decadal growth 1971-81 Census	Decadal growth 1981-91 Census	Decadal growth 1991-2001 Census
Padhar	122.51	50.99	41.05
Kolgha	111.00	32.86	-41.44
Kathodi	-13.37	87.47	21.94
Kotwalia	37.65	10.19	9.63
Siddi	21.13	16.71	36.71

 

The table shows that the population of Padhar is significantly increasing in last four decades comparing to the other PVTGs. Tribal Research and Training Institute, Ahmedabad observes that the cause of increasing population among Padhar is the importance of the male child and by giving subsequent birth till 2 or 3 male children are born in their family.

 

Demography:

 

Sex wise population of Padhar in Gujarat:

 

Districts	Male	Female	Total	Sex Ratio
Ahmedabad	5277	4534	9811	859
Surendranagar	7837	7251	15088	925
Total	13114	11785	24899	899

 

(Source: PVTG Baseline Survey. Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat, 2005)

 

Padhars are chiefly found in Viramgam, Dashkroi and Dhanduka talukas of Ahmedabad and Limbdi taluka of Surendranagar district in an around Nalsarovar. Their sex ratio is only 899 per 100 males.

 

Literacy among Scheduled and PVTGs in four decades in Gujarat State:

Sr. No.	Details	1971	1981	1991	2001	PTG Baseline Survey (TRTI)
1	Gujarat State	35.79	43.70	51.15	69.14	N.A
2	Scheduled Tribe	14.12	21.14	29.67	47.74	N.A
3	Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (5)	6.56	15.27	24.81	26.09	34.21

(Source: Census survey and PVTG Baseline Survey. Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat, 2005)

 

According to 2001 literacy rate among Padhar was 26.09 per cent which has gone up to 34.21 per cent in the year 2005.

 

Ethnography:

Padhar is one of the five PVTGs of Gujarat state. They reside on the plains of Nalakantha region of Saurashtra. Padhars are centered in and around the Nalsarovar and their population is distributed in 12 villages of Daskhori, Dhandhuka and Viramgam talukas of Ahamedabad and Limbdi taluka of Surendranagar district of Gujarat. They are believed to be descendents of Padhiyar (assistant to the Bhua – priest who worships the Hinglaj goddess). They have proto-australoid physical features and their language is Padhari (austric language family). Padhars are divided into several clans (kutum) such as mer, daivi, sapra, pachani, bnuatra, kanotra, bamayita, kanora, dhasra, deorthala, domra, dharajia, khodani, permar etc. and they are all exogamous. From the legendary story relating the origin of the tribe there were only 12 villages made by Hinlaj Mata (the main Goddess of Padhar) for her 12 worshipers and they are maintaining their ancestral rule to not to  settle anywhere besides these 12 villages namely Shahpur, Dharji, Seal, Deorthal, Nanikathechi, Ranagarh, Parali, Parnala, Ralol, Gedi, Jinjhini and Jasmatpar. Besides, there are about 360 small islands (bet) in Nalsarovar like Bharela, Tamba, Lasa, where some Padhar people are found mainly with their cattle and fishing as their pursuit. Most of the time the islands are submerged under the water, because of this people can not reside there permanently.

 

Padhars are dark in complexion, middle built, stout in structure and very strong bodied. In a way, they resemble Koli Patels of Gujarat, even culturally they do almost share characteristics with Koli Patels except their non-vegetarian food habits. It is believed that Padhars are carrying a mixed blood of Kolis and Rajputs., especially with the Mer clan of Rajputs.

 

Settlement pattern: Their families are patriarchal and nuclear and the size of the family varies from 6 to 8 members. In every village Padhar’s hamlet are mostly traditional are called as Padhar Vaas. The houses are mud houses situated on the both sides of the road. But their traditional huts are called as kuba, made of locally available wood and thatched with grass. The wall of kuba is made with grass and plastered with clay and round in shape. Kuba is usually one room accommodation with a small door, has no windows. As Nalsarovar is very hot in summer and there is sand-storm often, this technology of making a kuba is more suitable for this particular echo-cultural zone. Traditionally Padhars classify their 12 villages into 3 different sections namely kathe ke gaon, the villages which are situated right on the bank of the Nalsarovar like  Shahpur, Dharji, Seal and Deorthal, secondly baban gaon, the villages which are original and primitive and 95% population of these villages is Padhar namey Nanikathechi and Ranagarh, thirdly chourashi ke gaon, the villages which are situated in a distance from the Nalsarovar namely Parali, Parnala, Ralol, Gedi, Jhinjhini and Jasmatpar.

Life Cycle Rituals: During pregnancy a woman maintains some restrictions in religious sector as well as in domestic work like cooking, milking, bathing in a pond etc. All these restrictions are the means of protection of mother and child. Padhars do not discriminate between male child and female child. They consider female as Laxmi (Hindu goddess of wealth). But being a labor community, a Padhar becomes happier if a boy is born because they have a notion that he will earn for the family as well as will continue the pedigree. After delivery the mother is given semi-liquid food called Raab, made  from millet flour. Six days later the mother is purified with a religious bath and allowed to do all the daily household works. Padhars generally follow marriage by negotiation. Marriage by elopement is common these days. In Padhar society bride price (dhej) is allowed. Divorce is permitted. Remarriage of widows and divorcee are permitted. The dead can either be buried in a grave yard or given a fire in a cremation ground. If an elderly person (male or female) dies his/her dead body is taken to the ground (bhoy-pathari) after a holy bath.

Religious Life: The term Padhar came from 'Padiar' which means the worshipper in their native language as Goddess Hinglaj is mainly worshipped by them. Now-a-days Padhars share the common rituals of Hindu religion with the local Hindu castes people though they have certain Gods and Goddess of their own. They have a conviction that the deities only protect their entire habitation. There are some clans and each clan possesses its own deity (kul devi).  Some are furnished below.

Clan                                        Kuldevi (clan deity)

Bhuatra                                   Kalka Maa

Daivi                                       Jhupali Maa

Deorthala                                Meledi Maa & Jhupali Maa

Dhansara                                Shakti Maa

Dharajia                                  Boot Bhawani and Jogini Maa

Domra/ Makwana                   Seori Maa

Gelia Sapra                             Gel Maa/Geliambe

Jhejhenia                                 Chamnud Maa

Kakaria                                   Boot Maa & Meledi Maa

Kanotra                                   Khhoriar Maa

Khodani                                  Meledi Maa

Ku-sapra                                 Shakti Maa

Lalani                                      Boot Maa & Meledi Maa

Mer                                          Hinglaj

Parmar                                    Khoriar Maa

Panchani                                 Chamunda

Samayita                                 Boot Maa & Meledi Maa

 

There are two kind of religious specialists among Padhars one of which are called Pujari who take care of the idol of the mandirs (temples) in daily basis. The other kind of worshipers, the shamans who are regarded as having access to benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters a trance state during a ritual, and practice divination and healing are called Bhuva. In Padhar society Bhuvas play a significant role in religious occasions or in daily life also. Bhuva is a clan oriented group and each clan has their own Bhuva.

 

Political Organization: In general Padhar take part with other caste member in the formal and informal council of the village and obey the general village rules. Constitutionally Padhars enjoy the reservation and membership in the democratic political system (gram panchayet). However, the daily life of the Padhar is governed by its own traditional tribal council (panch) which has immense influence on their life. From each clan one person is selected as the clan representative (Motiar) to form a village council called Panch or Nyay-samiti. The Motiars or the Mota Manas are selected on the basis of age, experience and the influence of the person on the community. A Padhar village head man is decided by their village deity. The Motiars form the Nyay-samiti and there is one village head man called Patel in each village. The village Ranagarh is considered as the central village among the twelve Padhar villages. The Patel of Ranagarh village is honored as the Patel of Bara-Gaam.  He is the most powerful and respected person among the entire Padhar community. There is one person in each village Nyay-samiti to assist the Patel is called Habildar. This Nyay-samiti deals every spheres of their life such as socio-religious besides it also settles the disputes and maintains peace and order.

 

Economy: Padhars are fishermen and gatherers of aquatic roots. Nalsarovar played the most vital role in this and they collect fish, aquatic roots and vegetables such as beed , kanda, theg, napa, banti, poli, etc., from the Nalsarovar. Gradually with the changes of environment and increasing population, modern development facilities, education, contact with modern market etc. fishing and food gathering is now the tertiary occupation. Very few Padhars possess small cultivable land which is not sufficient for their subsistence. Hence they are working as the daily or casual labor at various fields like earth digging, construction work, agricultural field etc. They also do hunting and bird catching.

 

Primary Occupation of Padhar:

Primary occupation	No. of people
Small children/old age	9656
Cultivators	720
Agriculture labour	78
Casual labour	11080
Govt.job	21
Private service	70
Small business	107
Skilled worker	44
Animal husbandry	130
Fishing	49
Automobile drivers	31
Maid servant	4
House work	300
Students	2600
Others	9
Total population	24899

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Sachivalay, Gandhinagar 2007-12)

 

The above table shows that 11080 people out of 24899 populations are working as casual laborers in various fields, 720 are cultivators, fishing, the traditional means of Padhar economy, is on the decline and only 49 people are engaged in this profession.

 

 

Health & Diseases:

After independence, more care is taken for health and hygiene of people and necessary facilities and amenities have been made both at district and taluka level, the details are given bellow:

 

No. of CHCs and PHCs in Tribal and Non-tribal areas of Gujarat:

Area	Community Health Centers (CHC)	Primary Health Centers (PHC)	Total
Tribal Areas	70	334	404
Non-tribal Areas	204	751	955
Total	274	1085	1359

(Source: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat)

 

A list of chronic and other diseases from which Padhars are generally suffering are as follows.

 

Chronic and other illnesses among Padhar:

Sr. No.	Type of illness	Number of patients
1	No Chronic illness	24723
2	T.B. (0.01)	104
3	Cancer	5
4	Leprosy	-
5	Diabetes	2
6	Paralysis	10
7	Bronchitis	22
8	Cardiac problem	4
9	Kidney problem	2
10	Others	27
	Total	24899

(Source: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat)

 

 The above list is showing that Padhar are generally suffering from T.B. According to the baseline survey in 2005, there are 104 people suffering from T.B. Cases of Bronchitis and Paralysis are also noticed in a considerable number among them. Other sicknesses include tumor in throat, blood pressure, anemia, heart disease, stone in kidney, etc.

 

There are also considerable numbers suffering from minor illness (2189 (8.7 per cent) cases) such as malaria, cholera, breathing problems, cough and cold, skin diseases, jaundice, ortho pain etc. Malaria is mostly found due to the stagnant water of flooded Nal-sarovar. Both central and state governments provide economic assistance for medical treatment for the patients. According to a survey by Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat out of the total population of Padhar about 183 persons depend on their traditional medical practioners (Bhuva), 507 persons depend on herbal treatment and 4006 took allopathic treatment. This shows that there has been a definite change in method of taking the treatment among this group. They mostly prefer the allopathic treatment and also like to take advice from the shamans.

 

Development plans:

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru provided a five-point formula for tribal development; known as Adivasi Panchshil which are as follows:

1. Tribal should be allowed to develop as per their own desire and design. Nothing should be imposed on them. Their traditional arts and crafts as well as their culture need to be encouraged.
2. The land and forest rights of tribals should be accepted.
3. Their own people need to be trained to look after their administration and development. The experts can be invited at initial stage but the tendency to fill the tribal area only with outsider people need to be checked.
4. There is no need for a big administrative network for tribal areas. Likewise a large number of schemes need to be launched in tribal area simultaneously. As far as possible, their own social and cultural organization may undertake the responsibilities.
5. The evolution of the schemes and fulfillment of targets and level of expenditure should not be the target; but it should be focused on development as witness among tribal people per se.

 

In India, the progress started on systematic development planning since 1^st April 1951. The constitution of India suggested making an assessment of development every ten year. Besides, Dhebar Commission was formed to inquire and recommended for developing the scheduled tribes. Before Dhebar Commission, the Renuka Roy Committee and Elwin Committee were also constituted. These committees made a thorough study of programmes undertaken for tribal development and their impact. In order to achieve to growth and development of backward tribal areas the Tribal Area Sub Plan (TASP) was introduced; so that the simultaneous development is effected, resulting overall development of the society.

 

Objectives of Tribal Area Sub Plan:

1. To reduce the difference between development of other areas vis-a-vis development of tribal areas.
2. To make impact on economic front where at least 50 per cent of tribal families are above Below Poverty Line.
3. To raise the level of production in areas of agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, cottage and small scale industries.
4. To raise the level of literacy.
5. To successfully handle the difference between economic and social pre-requirements in the tribal area economy.
6. To provide for capital investment for developing the natural resources of land and forest as well as stabilization of industrial base for the tribal areas and its development.
7. To protect the tribal people against exploitation in sales and purchase of land, trade, small industries, subsidiary forest products and agriculture products by the vested interests and to ensure that they get full benefits of tribal development schemes as well as to stop taking away or transfer of their land and to help them come out of debts.

 

Major Infrastructure issues of PVTG villages:

Development priorities identified for the PVTG community                    No.of Villages

 

Problem of drinking water                                                                              282

Electricity                                                                                                        130

Road and link road to their hamlet                                                                 340

Housing                                                                                                           89

Lack of agricultural land                                                                                 15

Land improvement                                                                                          12

Loan facility for dairy activity                                                                        4

Street light                                                                                                      20

Drainage facility                                                                                             15

 

Development Activities undertaken:

Considerable emphasis was put in the past for development of PVTG families, their agricultural lands were leveled, agricultural kits, free seed, milching cattle, fishing boats & nets, etc. were provided to them. These families were also linked with schemes for housing, electrification of houses, health services and other social welfare schemes. However, the gap between these and other ST families could not be narrowed significantly. Under Ministry of Tribal Affair’s scheme for upliftment of PVTG families, following additional support was provided during last three years-

 

Schemes for PVTG development in the year 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08:

S.No.	Schemes	Rs. In lakh
1	Kotwalia Project(forest development)	14.75
2	Project for development of PTGs	213.32
3	Janashree Bima Yojana	105.00
4	CCD Payment	432.00
Total		665.7

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Sachivalay, Gandhinagar 2007-12)

 

Conservation cum Development Plan (CCD Plan, year 2007-2012) for particular vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs) is being undertaken for the upliftment of the PVTGs with assistance of Gujarat State Government.

 

 

Objectives of Conservation cum Development Plans:

 

1.      Improved livelihood opportunities - to double their income.

2.      Housing – every PVTG family to have proper house with usable toilet.

3.      Access to safe drinking water – 100% houses to have piped drinking water supply.

4.      Access to electricity – every family to have electricity connection.

5.      Literacy – to achieve full literacy status for the children aged 6-15 years.

6.      Health - every family to have full access to government run health facilities and every antenatal mother to have delivery in private nursing home under Chiranjivi scheme.

7.      Access to road – every hamlet to have access to cement concrete roads.

 

Financial Report of Conservation cum Development Plans:

Total sanctioned budget of the project Rs.76.69 Crores for five years. So far, the project has received following grants from Central and State Govt.

 

The component wise expenditure out of the total outlay of 1378 lakhs for the year 2011-2012:

 

Sr. No.	Activity	Amount in lakhs
1	Group formation and awareness generation	29.72
2	Bamboo Craft Development	61.38
3	Eco-Tourism	-
4.1	Dairy Activities	425.70
4.2	WADI and Agriculture Development	220.96
4.3	Fisheries	7.95
4.4	Skill Training	251.91
4.5	Self Training	67.41
Total		690.68

(Source: District Development Office, Ahmedabad)

 

Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana (AGRICULTURE DIVERSIFICATION PROJECT FOR TRIBAL AREAS OF GUJARAT):

Hon. Chief Minister of Gujarat has announced Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana (CM’s Ten Point Program) for the development of 43 ITDP Talukas of Gujarat. This programme aims at ensuring very high quality social and civil infrastructure and sustainable employment in these areas such that the income of every tribal family doubles in coming five years. The main goals of this project are:

 

1. To introduce improved agricultural practices to the small and marginal farmers in tribal areas

 

2. To double the income from the land related activities and sustain it for at least one generation

 

3. To ensure sustainable and commercially viable involvement of the private sector

 

The project covered 5 to 10 villages per taluka in Banaskantha, Surat, Vadodra, and other districts but not in Ahmedabad and Surendranagar districts where the Padhars are concentrated and they did not get benefits under this scheme.

 

Special scholarship for PVTG students in standard 1 to 10:

The table below shows the amount of expenditure and the number of beneficiaries in different financial years. The scholarship rates have been revised from existing rate of 650/- per annum for both boys and girls students of class 1 to 8 to Rs.750/-,  and Rs.1000/- per annum for class 9 and 10.

Year	Expenditure (in Lakhs)	Benefited
2007-08	0.64	116
2008-09	11.92	2338
2009-10	11.10	2147
2010-11	10.02	19412

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Gujarat)

 

 

 

Financial Assistance for housing:

Under the scheme the PVTG person is granted financial assistance for housing on individually basis under poverty alleviation programme.

 

Year	Exp.	Benefited
2007-08	3.30	22
2008-09	3.70	19
2009-10	7.00	35
2010-11	6.06	12

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Gujarat)

 

Manav Garima:

Under the scheme of Manav Garima, a kit of Rs.5000/- is given to the person whose annual income is up to Rs.25000/- per anum.

Year	Exp.	Benefited
2007-08	7.23	241
2008-09	10.26	342
2009-10	2.82	92
2010-11	3.74	72
2011-12	3.33	85

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Gujarat)

 

Bibliography:

 

1. Chaudhury, S.N. & Singh, R.P. (2006): Tribes of Pachmarhi Biosphese Reserve and their Indigenous Knowledge. Bhopal:Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangharalaya.

2.      Dash Sharma, P. (2006). Anthropology of Primitive Tribes in India. New Delhi: Serials Publications.

3.      Fried, Morton H. (1975). “The Myth of Tribe.” Natural History, 64 (4): 12- 20.

4.      Risley, H.H. (1891). The Tribes and Castes of Bengal. Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Press.

5.      Sahu, C. (1998). Primitive Tribes of India (An Ethnographic Profile). New Delhi: Sarup & Sons.

6.      Jatana, R. & Waldia, S. (2009). Tribal Development Programmes. New Delhi: Mahamaya Publishing House.

7.      Mandal, H.et al. (2002). India An Illustrated Atlas of Tribal World. Kolkata: Anthropological Survey of India.

8.  M. O’Rand Angela & Margaret, L. K. (1990). Concept of the Life Cycle: Their History. Annual Review of Anthropology.

9.      Mohanty, P.K. (2002). Development of Primitive Tribal Groups in India. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications.

10. Chhotubhai, Patel D. (1982). Dilapidated Dwellings and Rich Temples: the Padhar of Gujarat. Ahmedabad: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat Vidyapeeth.

 

11. Seligman Z. Brenda (1971). Notes and Queries on Anthropology. Royal Anthropological Institute.

 

12.  Singh, K.S. (2003). “People of India: Gujarat, XXII, (2).” Anthropological Survey of India. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.

13. Upadhyaya, C. & Pancholi, R. (2010). Primitive Tribal Groups of Gujarat. A Baseline Survey. Ahmedabad: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Gujarat Vidyapeeth.