The Myth of Prometheus

 

In this famous Greek myth, Prometheus steals fire from the gods as an act of compassion for humanity. For this defiance against the authority of Zeus, Prometheus is banished and chained to a rock on a remote island. Each day his liver is ravaged by an eagle but, due to his immortality, is regenerated by night. There are many versions of the myth, but the central theme evident in each recounting of the tale is the misuse of power and terrible consequences thereafter of ‘playing with fire’.

A similarity can also be seen between the myth of Prometheus and the creation myth of the Garden of Eden. In the Gnostic tradition, the snake or serpent was attributed to Sophia the goddess of wisdom and not Satan as the bible says. Likewise Prometheus, although prone to cunning and trickery, was the bridge between the mortal and immortal realms, and the catalyst for the advancement of the human race. In both myths the incipient stirrings of the higher knowledge and creative inspiration that would see human beings emerge to become sovereigns of the earth is aided by the intervention of the gods.

Myth is the most reliable source of truth in which to perceive the reality of existence. This is because the power of original myth operates in the present without reference to the past. Even to glimpse this opens up a completely new perspective of life on earth. Prometheus chained to the hardness of rock represents the body of humankind bound to the consequences of a loveless existence instigated by the force and corruption in matter. The shackles symbolise the attachment to time which would externalise as the impulse to enslave others against their will.

The eagle at the pinnacle of humanity is the pure intelligence of our cosmic origins. At the world octave, the eagle is symbolic of the ruling classes, dictators and political tyrants who tear at the liver of the weak and exploit the vulnerable for absolute control of the masses. It appears a hopeless situation – and it is while the struggle for retribution rages on. However, the liver is the only human organ able to regenerate itself, and is symbolic of the innate power of the human spirit to rise up from suppression and begin anew. Prometheus knew he had only to wait and undergo his ordeal with courage and fortitude for the moment of freedom to come.

Whether Zeus showed mercy or not is uncertain; but Prometheus was eventually freed by Hercules, the hero of Greek mythology. In the period that followed, the gods gradually disappeared over the horizon of time. They could only appear once at the dawning of humanity and were unable to retain their presence in the hazy psyche of developing Homo sapiens. However, as human beings became aware of their own incredible creative intelligence, the indelible impressions of the antics of the gods and their lust for power over others became an ever-increasing burden. Every civilisation has been the endeavour to create a vision of the gods as a way of life on earth. But as history shows, all attempts to realise this ideal have failed. Apart from a few relics, all that remains are the ruins and dust of forgotten dreams.

The price to be paid for defying the gods was the opening of Pandora’s Box and the subsequent release of all the ills of the world. This was the revenge on Prometheus by Zeus who, in creating Pandora as the first woman, ensured that humankind would never rest for long on earth. But Prometheus had the gift of foresight and knew what Zeus would do. Chained to his rock, he watched as the world was created and degenerated in time through the ravages of war and chaos – just as we’re able to do today in watching the daily news bulletins. The world is the backdrop to the drama of life, and man and woman the players on the screen.

Each of us who are willing must be purified by the spiritual fire back to the original state of being. This is the transformation of self, the greatest agony on earth. Liberation comes at the moment of greatest despair; and yet it’s through this ordeal that the only true authority which resides within the individual can be realised. The mythic truth is that Prometheus is really you and me. How long each of us is bound to the rock of the world is determined by the surrender to our purification within the integrity of the whole.

Ancient Greek fact of the day: the many guises of Zeus •

 

The control of the sky and the father of all 

Zeus was the main divinity of the Greek pantheon, and is certainly one of the oldest gods, with his cult attested in Bronze Age Greece with a mention on the Linear B tablets. 

He has a distinct Indo European origin, with his name deriving from the root “dieu”, meaning day and from the ancient sky god “Dyaus” mentioned in the Rigveda (Sanskrit hymns). This was an appropriate name for Zeus who was also a god that dominated the heavens and was seen as a symbol of light, and creator of all. Indeed, as god of the bright sky, the ancient Greeks linked him to the weather and made a mountain top a specific place for his worship. 

In Homer, Zeus is both father, πατήρ, and king or lord. His paternal side is evident on his temple in Olympia, where he is closely linked to his son Herakles whose labours form the metopes. 

Zeus as king 

Most Greek sources display Zeus as a king, not a tyrant. His main domain is right and justice. Any transgressions of his order is dealt with through divine justice. Thus the suitors in the Odyssey are compelled to suffer for their inhospitable behaviour, with xenia (hospitality) being yet another example of Zeus’ attributes. 

However, Zeus is corruptible with his power: He deposed of his father Cronus who had also castrated his father Uranus. Among Zeus’ formidable display of total power, is the famous punishment given to Prometheus for stealing the Olympian fire, where he was forcibly chained to a rock so that his liver could be removed day after day. This tyrannical style of behaviour is promoted by Ovid in his Metamorphoses where the Roman Zeus, Jupiter, rules with oppression. 

Zeus the protector 

The Greek word for fence is herkos, and herkeiosis was a further epithet of Zeus. According to Homer, the altar of Zeus Herkeios generally stood in the courtyard before the house, where sacrifices and libations were offered to him and in return he would provide valuable protection to the oikos, house. 

•

These are just a few of Zeus’ guises. He in fact has many more! From saviour figure to protector of friendship. He was also omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent….as his mythol

ogy accentuates.

Tribal Fairs and festivals of Purulia

 Purulia is a land of tribal festivals in West Bengal. Read this article to know about the tribal festivals in Purulia.

Here are the main tribal fairs and festivals in Purulia district of West Bengal.

Shiber Gajan: Gajan or Shiber Gajan is a famous festival in Purulia district.This festival is also popular as Chait Parab, Charak Puja. Shiber Gajan is held between middle of March to end of May every year.

Disum Sendra: This is a hunting festival of Santhals at Ayodhya Hill in Purulia during Baishakhi Purnima. Disum Sendra is also known as Shikar Parab.

Puja of Dharma Thakur and Mela: This local festival of Purulia is held from mid of April to mid of May every year.

Rohini Utsav: This festival in Purulia is celebrated by cultivators. On 13 Jaistha every year, the cultivators sow seeds and celebrate this Rohini Utsav festival.

Erohk Sim: This festival is similar to Rohini Utsav and this festival is celebrated by Santhals in the month of Asad (15 June to 15 July).

Batauli: Mundas celebrate the sow seed festival.

Manasa Puja: On the last day of Shravan month (15-16 August) every year,  puja of Manasa, the Goddess of snake is performed.

Karam Parab: This festival is celebrated in Purulia after completion of paddy cultivation.

Chata Parab:  Funds of this festival comes from rich people of the society.  Chata Parab is celebrated throughout the night with dance and songs.

Bhadu: Bhadu is goddess among the backward classes like Bagdis and Bouris. Bhadu Puja is a famous festival in Purulia and also in nearby district Bankura.

Bandhna Parab: Bandhna Parab is also a local festival in Purulia which is held every year after the Kali Puja. This festival or parab is famous among the Kurmi, Bhumij, Korha, Lodha communities. The same festival for Santhals and Mundas is known as Sohray.

Jathel Utsav: Jathel Utsav is mainly celebrated by Santhals in Purulia during 15 November to 15 December every year.

Raas mela: Raas Utsav or Raas Mela is celebrated in many parts of West Bengal and Purulia district is one of them. Raas mela is celebrated mainly in Purulia town in Purulia district during Agrahayan Purnima.

Tushu: Tushu Puja is celebrated by rural women in Purulia district. Tushu songs are very popular in Purulia.

Bhansingh Puja and Parab: In Purulia, Bhansingh is regarded as God of cattle. This Puja and festival is normally celebrated during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar. Magh month falls during 15 January to 15 February.

Akhan Jatra: Akhan Jatra is regarded as an auspicious day in Purulia which falls on the first day of Magh month according to Bengali calendar.

Chandi Puja: Chandi Puja is celebrated during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar. A popular fair is associated with this Chandi Puja in Purulia.

Magh Sim: A famous festival of Santhals which is held every year during the month of Magh according to Bengali calendar.

Baha: Baha is a spring festival to Santhals in Purulia. Night long dance and songs are associated with this festival. The same festival of Mundas is known as  Sarjan Baha.

Bhejabindha: Cock fight is very popular among the tribal in Purulia. Bhejabindha is a festival of Santhals and cock fighting is the main event of this festival.

"Mother's Hands " khachkar

 This unique "Mother's Hands" khachkar, dedicated to the memory of the victims of the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, is located in Lowell (Massachusetts, USA). The stone is carved in the form of caring and tired mother's hands, which seem to be made of wool khachkar.

The monument is unusual in that it is located in front of the state government building, unlike other monuments, which are more often located in the area of ​​Armenian churches.

According to the creator of the memorial Daniel Hejinyan, the pattern symbolizes the prayers and hopes that Armenians around the world say.

Astagik Gods -Armenian Mythology

 Astgik Gods - Armenian Mythology

Early in a prehistoric era, a worshiper was considered the gods of fertility and love, and later on the light of the sky was considered its incarnation. In a while later she became the goddess of love, the virgin beauty, the source of water and spring.

According to the Armenian mythology, Astagik was a lover and the prince of God Fahaken, the god of sun, strength and courage at the ancient Armenians. And she was the sister of the mother of the gods, Anahid - known as the mother of the armenians.

The name "Astghik-Astghik" is a short term for the Armenian word "Astgh" which means "Star." The word derived from the initial root of the Indo-European "h2st ḗr".

The main temple of Astghik was in Ashtishat (Daron), north of Mosh city, and other temples and places of worship were also located in many cities and villages across the Armenian highlands, such as Balati Mountain, southwest of Lake Van and in Artamit (12 km from Van).

There is a belief that unique monuments dating back to prehistoric era, especially known as Dragon Stones, and found in many historical provinces of Armenia such as Taik, Javakhk, Argatsutton, Kigarconic, etc. are additional demonstrations of Astaghik worship.

Fortunately, many Astaghik worships were saved, including the Eid of Vartavar - Vartavar, which is considered a day dedicated to it, celebrated by the Armenian people to this day in the middle of July every year. On this day, people spray water on each other in squares and streets collectively, believing that it washes away evil and brings good luck, and a certain religious rituals are held in the Gharni Al-Gharni temple in Armenia to preserve this historical tradition that has survived for thousands of years.

Jaisamand Lake: A Historic Visit

 

Jaisamand Lake is the country's second-largest man made lake after Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar. Jaisamand lake covers an area of about 100 sq km, surrounded by the Jaisamand Wildlife Reserve, which is home to a variety of flora and fauna. It is also known by the locals as the Dhebar lake.

In the spring season the Queens of Udaipur set to visit this place for fun and to enjoy the flawless environment. On the marble dam, there is a temple committed to Shiva. The lake was constructed by Maharaja Jai Singh in 1685 CE, while he was building a dam over the Gomti river. The 'Ocean of Victory', as its name proposes, was initiated on June 2, 1691. It has three islands which were inhabited by Bhil and Mina tribes. The two greater islands are called ‘Baba ka Magra’ and the little island is known as ‘Piari’. There is additionally a gigantic dam at the height of over 1200 ft on the lake. The Jaisamand lake is perfect, wonderful and a nature lovers. Far from the disturbance of the city, this spot of most extreme harmony is an unquestionable requirement visit.

Jaisamand lake remained Asia's greatest man-made lake until the Britishers shaped Aswan Dam in Egypt amid 1902. The shortage of water amid Jai Singh's reign brought about the development of this huge lake. Maharaja Jai Singh named it after himself and considered it the ‘Ocean of Victory’ or Jaisamand. Jai Singh circulated gold same as of his weight amid the debut function of the dam which occurred on second June 1691.

Anthropological Museum in India

 

Introduction

 

The term museum is derived from Greek word museion which means temple of muses, the goddesses protecting arts and sciences. The museion or musaion which was founded by Ptolemaies (who died in 283 B.C.) in Alexandria was centre for learning and scholarship in the world of ancient Greece and an important establishment of Hellenic civilization, housing rich collection. It was temple of muses, occupying a large building in the royal quarter of the town functioning as a centre of research and education. Hence the primary purpose of the museum was religious.

 

During the 9^th to 12^th centuries of the middle ages of European history, museum stood as the ‘House of Relics’. Its main function was the preservation and the saturation of relics of saints who played an important role in the political and cultural life of the day. In Asia early social museum like institution did exist to keep the collective memory of people alive. In India stupa containing the bodily relics of the Buddha was an embodiment of sacredness and spiritual value. A stupa realizing the social objectivity was an earlier manifestation contacting back the social reality and providing theoretical museology in India, even as early as in 3^rd century B.C.

                 

 Ancient and medieval Indian literature is full of such terms like ‘Alekhyagriha’, ‘Vithi’, ‘Chitrasala’, ‘Chalan Chitrasala’ etc. which stand for galleries housing paintings sculptures and terracotas. These were however the royal museums where ordinary people had no access. The various Sanskrit place viz. Pratima by Bhasha and Naisandhiyacarita of Sriharsa belonging to 12^th century A.D. respectively speakof the permanent and mobile exhibition galleries attached to the royal courts. The audio visual shows and pata-citra (scroll paintings) were intended basically for public enjoyment and instruction, one of the important functions of the modern museum.

The era of Renaissance from 14^th to 16^th century A.D. marked the qualitatively a new change in the history of museum movement. Increased interest in social and natural objects, representing scientific knowledge, were of special interest to the neo-rich class of the changing society. The growing demand for curious (Latin ‘curiositas’ meaning thirst for knowledge) and rarities (Latin ‘raritas’ viz. rare things) gave rise to big collection of authentic objects. The term museum for a collection was first introduced in the late 15^th century. The search for rare cultural and natural objects gained momentum soon after the Renaissance.

                   

 During eighteenth and nineteenth century various national museums were opened in various parts of the globe. The first National Museum in the world was British Museum which was created in 1753. The First Public Museum of America was founded in Charleston , South California in1773. It was in 1793 France announced the opening of the palace of Louvre as the museum of the Republic. Spain had opened National Museum of Natural Sciences in 1776. In most of the national museums of the world specific galleries were created / earmarked for the ethnographic or anthropological collection.

 

The most widely accepted current definition of a museum is that incorporated in the Statutes of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and adopted at the Eleventh General Assembly of ICOM in Copenhagen in 1974 and modified at the Sixteenth General Assembly of ICOM which took place at Hague, Netherlands in 1989.  This defines a museum as:

a non-profit making, permanent institution, in the service of society and of its development, and open to public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates, and exhibits, for purposes of study, education and enjoyment, material evidence of people and their environment.

The above definition clearly suggests that the major thirst of museum is largely under the domain of anthropology or ethnography.

Anthropological Museums play a vital role for conserving cultural heritage through collection, preservation and exhibition of ethnographic objects. Collection of ethnographic objects is made from remote corners of the country’s innumerable folk and tribal villages. The ethnographic collection of an Anthropological Museum consists of household articles like bamboo and cane baskets, rain hat and rain coat (made out of leaves), wooden toys, mat, wooden seat, earthen vessels, bark cloth, wooden mortar and pestle, wooden measuring pots, ladle, walking sticks, digging sticks and membrane musical instruments; agricultural implements like wooden plough, leveler, hoe and sickle; hunting and fishing implements like bow and arrows, spear, fishing trap, fishing net, etc., and decorative objects like jewellery, dress materials and paintings. Save and except of the ethnographic objects, collection of anthropological museum consists of palaeo-anthropological evidences-fossil hominids; prehistoric tools. 

 

Contribution of Museums in the Development of Anthropological Schools

 

 Museums and museum personnel played a key role for the development of anthropological thoughts and schools. General Augustus Pitt-Rivers ( Lane Fox ) organised a museum in Oxford, following the evolutionary theory to show the succession of ideas and development. In this museum foremost British anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor one of the pillars of the evolutionary school carried out his research. In Germany the doyens of “Diffusionist School” namely Adolf Bastain, Fredrich Ratzel and Fritz Grabner carried out research on ethnological study of the diffusion of culture traits by utilising Royal Museum, Berlin as their platform of study and research. The idea of research in American Museum with rich ethnographic and anthropological collection namely Peabody Museum of Archaeology and ethnology at Harvard University, National Museum of Natural History in New York took concrete shape when Fredrick Putnam became the Curator of the Peabody Museum. He was assisted by Franz Boas. Boas build up Columbian Field Museum for accommodating specimen collected by him and his students. The scholars associated with Boas and the said museum namely Clark Wissler and A.L. Kroeber and others developed ‘Culture Area’ concept.

 

 A.C. Haddon and a team of anthropologists including C S Myer, W H R Rivers, S H Ray, William McDougall and C G Seligman carried out “The Torres Strait Expedition” during 1880’s. The said collections of artefacts taken back to Britain by A. C. Haddon are among the most comprehensive and well-documented ever obtained museum objects. They are scattered through seven museums, which include the Museum of Mankind (the Department of Ethnography, British Museum), the Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, the Horniman Museum and the National Museum of Ireland. For the first time the whole range of these outstanding artefacts is fully described and illustrated with 450 black and white photographs. This catalogue at last makes them available for study by anthropologists, museum curators, and all others interested in the history and ethnography of Melanesia and Australia. A.C. Haddon Museum at Cambridge University is one of the finest ethnographic museum of the world.

 

Establishment of Indian Museum and Creation of Anthropological Survey of India

                      

 In 1814 the Asiatic Society of Bengal accepted the offer of a Danish Botanist Dr. Nathaniel Wallich as an honorary curator of The Oriental Museum of the Asiatic Society. Gradually the bulk of collection was growing to such an extent that by the end of 1860 the society had no way but to request the Viceroy to set up an imperial museum. At the request of the society the Government of India constituted the Board of Trustees for the proposed museum in 1865. Subsequently the Indian Museum Act was passed and the museum was renamed as Indian Museum.

 

  "Initially the museum had two section, Archaeology and Anthropology in one and Botany, Zoology and Geology in the other. Due to the absence of qualified anthropologist among the staff members of the museum the anthropological collection were also looked by the archaeologist."(Sarkar,2005:7). Sir Herbert H. Risley an eminent ethnologist, the author of various books on colonial ethnography including The Tribes and Castes of Bengal and Peoples of India when appointed as the Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Indian Museum in 1904 proposed to transfer the anthropological collection from the industrial sections to the zoology section. Government of India, Department of Education created a separate Zoological Survey of India in 1916 out of the zoological and anthropological sections of the Indian Museum. 

                  

Dr. N. Annandale, a noted zoologist and in-charge of the newly created Zoological Survey of India had some unique experience in conducting fieldwork both in Faroe Islands and Malay Pennisula (Malaysia). He setup a physical anthropological laboratory in the premises of the Indian Museum. From 1916 to 1919 he took up anthropometric measurements of the Anglo-Indians of Calcutta (now Kolkata) and made critical observation of their physical features. He handed over the entire data to Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis for statistical analysis. The report of the analysis was incorporated in the Records of the Indian Museum, a special volume (No. XXIII).

 

Dr. R.B. Saymour Sewell after taking the charge of Zoological Survey of India felt the urgent necessity of a whole time officer for taking care of the anthropological collection. Thus, Dr. B.S. Guha a product of Harvard University and had his training in primitive arts and industries with noted anthropologist Professor R.B. Dixon was appointed as an anthropologist to look after the anthropological collection of the Zoological Survey of India in 1927 and was confirmed in 1929. He Dr. Guha made extensive fieldwork in NEFA (now known as Arunachal Pradesh), Nagaland, Andaman Islands and many other parts of the countries. Dr. Guha did research work based on anthropological collection of Indian Museum and also with the Indian population of both past and present. Racial classification of Indian population as a part of 1931 Census made by Dr. Guha was the outcome of his monumental research and survey work on the present day Indian population. He also initiated study of skulls comprised with pre and proto-historic crania from several places such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Taxila and from various south Indian megalithic sites. These skulls were under the charge of the anthropology section of the then Zoological Survey of India. Dr. Sewell the then Director of Zoological Survey of India with the help of Dr. Guha introduced a new bulletin under the title “Anthropological Bulletin from the Zoological Survey of India”. The anthropological collection of the Indian Museum was under the zoological section of the Indian Museum From 1911 to 1915.

 

Since 1916 this collection came under the Zoological Survey of India and remained attached to it till 1945. The Government of India formed the Department of Anthropology (now known as Anthropological Survey of India) in 1^st December 1945 at Varanasi with Dr. B.S. Guha as the founder director. Dr. Guha took away all the anthropological specimen and gallery from the Zoological Survey of India and created a newly formed Department of Anthropology on 1^st December, 1945 at Varanasi which was later shifted to Kolkata as its Head Office and renamed as Anthropological Survey of India.

 

Museums of the Anthropological Survey of India

During the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) the Anthropological Survey of India proposed to establish a chain of Anthropological Museums for its Head Office - Kolkata, and the Regional Offices, with a view to documenting and preserving the bi-cultural heritage of the people, tribal groups in particular of our country which was materialized and implemented in the Fifth Five Year Plan (1975-78). And  zonal museums were gradually opened.

Since the first Zonal Museum was opened at the sub-regional office at Jagdalpur on 7^th April 1978, and new museum have been opened at Nagpur (September, 1978 and with newly modernized gallery in 2012 in a newly renovated building), and the third at Shillong (April, 1979). Similarly museum (Central Museum) was inaugurated in Calcutta (23 september,1981) at its Ripon street building, at Dehra Dun (1995), and at Port Blair (2004) though the museum of Port Blair functioning since 1953.  Zonal Anthropological Museums at the Western Regional Centre, Udaipur was formally inaugurated 11 March, 2013 and the ZAM of Southern Regional Centre, Mysore  was functioning since 1965 and got its momentum in 1977 after joining the Assistant Keeper in this regional centre and in 2001 after shifting museum collection in the new building  with  the modernization  of museum  gallery.

 

 Over the last seven decades the Survey has accumulated and preserved a large number of ethnographic specimens representing the wide range of heterogeneous cultural heritages of the Indian people. The purpose was to make thematic display of these collections in order to make people aware of the rich cultural traditions of Indian communities through the dissemination of such bio-cultural information.

 

Central Museum of Anthropological Survey of India is located in Kolkata, the capital city of West Bengal. The Geographical area covered is the entire country. It has unique collection of numerous ethnographic specimens from all over India. Besides, artifacts collected from other countries are also on display. Some of the outstanding objects are wooden carved images of guardian spirit of Red Kaffir of Pakistan, battle axe of stone and whale bone of Mawe tribe of New Zealand, wooden effigy and painted magical board of Nicobarese of Nicobar Island, dancing board of the Andamanese, indigenous musical instruments, bark clothes, etc. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Great Andamanese,the  Nicobarese, the Chenchu, the Toto, the Tangsa, the Nocte, the Asur, the Birhor, the Munda, the  Santal, the Gamit, the  Agaria, the Gond, the Baiga, the  Bondo, the Juang, the Saora, the Lepcha, the Kannikar, the Riang are of special attraction. The central museum is now not opened to the public and a new central museum will be opened in the Salt Lake Campus of the Anthropological Survey of India after shifting the objects and exhibits from the central museum at Ripon Street.

                                                          Central Museum, Kolkata                                  

     Zonal Anthropological Museum of Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre is located at Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Island. The geographical areas Covered are the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Jarawa, the Sentinelese, the Onge, the Great Andamanese, the Nicobarese and the Shompen. The zonal museum in Port Blair is an important tourist centre and situated in the heart of the town. This is the only museum in Anthropological Survey of India where entry ticket is introduced for viewing the museum galleries. The display depicts the story of human evolution in general and total picture of tribal lives of Andaman and Nicobar islands in particular.

                                         Zonal Museum, Port Blair                                         

Zonal Anthropological Museum of the Central Regional Centre is located at Nagpur, Maharashtra. The geographical areas covered are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Bhil, the Gond, the Korku, the Varli, the Kawar, the Baiga and the Pardhan. The number of specimens acquired is about 2000. This museum gives an insight about the human evolution and variation through biological change and story of mankind from prehistoric era to contemporary age.

                                            Ghotul-Youth Dormitory on Display, Jagdalpur

Zonal Anthropological Museum of the Sub-Regional Centre located at Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh. The geographical areas covered are Chhattisgarh and adjoining states of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The nucleus of the Sub-Regional Centre of the Anthropological Survey of India was established at Jagdalpur in the form of Zonal Anthropological Museum (ZAM) on the 11^th December, 1972, and was inaugurated formally on 7^th April 1978. The ZAM was given the status of a Sub-Regional Centre on the 20^th December, 1976. The Centre, since then started functioning independently with the same administrative power as that of other Regional Centres of the Anthropological Survey of India. Shri Sundarlal Tripathi, a freedom fighter, renowned scholar and eminent social worker of Bastar, took all the initiative in establishing this Zonal Anthropological Museum. As a result of his untiring efforts, Prof. Humayan Kabir, and then Education Minister, Govt. of India, finally approved the proposal of establishing a Zonal Anthropological Museum in the heart of a tribal milieu of Bastar under the guidance of Dr. Surajit C. Sinha, former Director of the Anthropological Survey of India. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Dandami Maria, the Binjhwar, the Baiga, the Korku, the Muria, the Munda, the Abujh Maria, the Halba, the Dorla, the Dhurwa, the Bhatra, and the Gadaba.

  Zonal Anthropological Museum of the North-West Regional Centre is located at Dehradun the state capital of Uttaranchal. The geographical areas covered are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh, Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarnchal. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the Bhotia, the Bhoksa, the Kinnaura, the Lahuli, the kashmiri, the Raji, the Swanglas, and the Ladakhi Bodh. Visitors of this museum can get an idea about the evolving life styles of Himalayan and sub Himalayan region.

                                                            Zonal Museum, Dehradun

Zonal Anthropological Museum of North-East Regional Centre is located at Shillong, Meghalaya. Geographical areas covered are Meghalaya, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh. (Tripura being covered by the Eastern Regional Cetre, Kolkata). A few communities from whom cultural artifacts were collected are the Adi, the Khasi, the Garo, the Mizo, the Lalung, the Nishi, the Monpa, the Wancho, the Mishmi, the Naga, and the Khampti. In April, 2001 the centre acquired its own building at Mawblei. This region (established in October, 1953) celebrated its golden jubilee events by organizing a special exhibition on Tribal World of Verrier Elwin –Creative Excellence of Tribes in October, 2002.

 

Zonal Anthropological Museums of Western Regional Centre is located at Udaipur, Rajasthan. Geographical areas covered are the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat as well as union territory of Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Havelli. A few communities from whom specimens were collected are the Bhil, the Mina, the Garasia, the Rathawa, the Saharia, the Damor, the GaruliaLoahar, the Rajput, the Tadri and the Gamti. A permanent exhibition was mounted in Golghar in the premise of Western Zonal Cultural Centre, at Udaipur from 2001 to 2018 and the museum was known as Gol Museum which was a primary place of attraction for the visitors of Udaipur and other parts of Rajasthan. During Shilpgram Utsav the museum regularly organized an exhibition It will not be out of the context to state that during last week of December every year lakhs of visitors visited both Gol museum and exhibition organized by the Zonal Anthropological Museum, Udaipur.  This Zonal Anthropological Museum was shifted to its new museum building at Pratap Nagar, Udaipur in March, 2007 and Zonal Anthropological Museum, Udaipur was formally opened to the public after its inauguration in March, 2013. 

 

                                                   Zonal Anthropological Museum, Udaipur

Zonal Anthropological Museums of Southern Regional Centre is located at Mysore, Karnataka. The geographical areas covered are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and Lakshadweep. The Zonal Anthropological Museum of the Southern Regional Centre started collection of objects in the year 1965 and situated at southern regional centre, Mysore, the heritage city of Karnataka. The Southern Regional Centre of Anthropological Survey of India was established in April 1960 as the fourth regional office of the Anthropological survey of India, at Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu.  Later it was shifted to Mysore in July 1962.  This regional office covers the jurisdiction of four southern states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and two union Territories, i.e. Lakshadweep and Pondicherry. This zonal museum has developed a visual storage in its new building (acquired in December, 2001) at Bogadi.

                                                    Display In Zonal Museum, Mysore

In short, Zonal Anthropological Museums play a key role in establishing links with the universe of research as well as in disseminating the finding of research. Each of the above museums has specimens on household artifacts, crafts items, musical instruments, artifacts related to economic pursuits , dress and ornaments, objects related to religious activities from different ethnic groups . The zonal museums give emphasis on depiction of bio-cultural heritage of people of the concerned zones. The museums disseminate knowledge through permanent galleries and by organizing thematic exhibitions, showing the documentary film made by the anthropological Survey of India, both in urban and rural areas of the country. All the specimens displayed in the museum are collected through field research, so the culture matrix of each specimen is properly documented. At present a thematic exhibition, on “Human Origins, Genome and People of India” has been mounting since 2004 for understanding the human being in time and space with special reference to India in various cities like New Delhi, Nagpur, Bhubaneswar, Mysore, Bhopal, Guwahati, Kohima, Imphal, Itanagar, and Shillong. Now the curatorial staffs are being engaged to enrich its reserve collection through a systematic collection plan. A conservation programme was also initiated in the year 2006 under the National Project “Documentation and Dissemination” for the care and conservation of the museum specimens of all the museums of Anthropological Survey of India. Under this conservation programme museum curators were engaged in both preventive  conservation and curative conservation to the damaged specimens along with digital documentation. The programme on “Conservation And Documentation of Museum Specimens of Anthropological Survey of India”  continued till 2010 and curators of the Museums visited seven Zonal Anthropological Museums (Nagpur, Udaipur, Mysore, Shillong, Jagdalpur, Dehradun, Port blair) and one Central museum situated at Kolkata and was engaged in conservation of selected ethnographic specimens of museum both from the display as well as reserve collection.

Anthropological and Ethnographic Galleries in Some Other Museums of India

 

After successful museum movement launched by Asiatic Society and Indian Museums, the museum movement soon spread in the major cities of southern and western India like Madras (now Chennai), Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram), Bombay (now Mumbai), Baroda (now Vadodara) and so on. Madras Literary Society an auxiliary of the Asiatic Society of London gave a spur to this movement in the South. Under the initiative of the Society and with the active assistance of the Court of Directors of the East India Company was open in the Collage of Fort ST. George in 1851 with Surgeon E.G. Belfour as its head. Ethnology was given a place in this museum in 1878 with the acquisition of bricks collection. Ethnology section of the museum was developed during 1885 to 1910 when Edgar Thurston was the Superintendent of the Museum.

He also acted as the Superintendent of Ethnography of Madras Presidency. Thurston along with developing the anthropological collection of the museums took photographs of the so called native tribes, prepared lantern slides, depicting the tribal life style, made photographic records of the tribal music and brought out bulletin for publication of his ethnographic survey. The product of his survey- “The Castes and Tribes of South India” in seven volumes were published in 1909. Apart from Ethnography the pre-historic collection of museum was enriched by the gifted specimens of Robert Brucefoot who also prepared the catalogue for the museum. Adichannalur skulls and other skeletal fragments found from the South Indian megalithic burials offered ample scope for developing the physical anthropological collection in this museum. With the intervention of Baron von Eickstedt the well known German anthropologist, Dr. F.H. Gravely a naturalist revived anthropological research so well started by Thurston. Diwan Bahadur K. Rangachari who worked with Thurston was appointed part time ethnologist in 1927. To help him noted social anthropologist Dr. Ayinapalli Aiyappan was appointed as Anthropological Assistant (post later renamed as curator) in Madras Government Museum in 1929 and he continued in the same post up to 1940. He became the Director in 1941 and continued up to 1958.  A Literary Society, of Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society and Anthropological Society of Bombay were also responsible for building of the ethnographical collections in Western India. Dr. Iravati Karve was associated with Anthropological Society of Bombay and did a valuable service for development of ethnographic museums in Bombay and Pune. Trivandrum Museum was developed in 1857 with ethnographic collection  collected and preserved by general Collins. Due to the effort of Sir Richard Temple the then commissioner of Central Province the collection of Central Museum Nagpur was built in 1863. The Baroda Museum, 1895 and Lady Wilson Museum (Dharampur, Valsad, Gujarat), 1910 had also developed by the gifts of the ethnographic objects of the then native rulers of the respective state.

The Assam Research Society and the Andhra Historical Research Society started their museum in 1912 and 1928 respectively. During the tenure of Prof. N.K. Bose the then Director of Anthropological Survey of India, a major gallery known as habitat group case (Diorma) on major tribal groups like Khasi, Garo, Naga, Khond, Onge, Nicobarese etc. at a particular stage of cultural development was installed in Indian Museum, Kolkata ( Das, 1989). Varrier Elwin played a pivotal role in the development of district cultural centre in the Tribal Research Institute, NEFA(now Arunachal Pradesh) as early as 1951. He conceived the idea of a cultural centre, a museum and a library under one shed for 36 major tribes scattered in six districts at his time. He conceived the idea of development of the museum through field expedition and exploration. Elwin believed that with the passage of time these centres or museums infused a sense of pride among the local population towards their own art, artefacts and heritage(Elwin, 1959,1960 and Das, ibid). Elwin himself collected a considerable number of art objects from NEFA which later on became the part of National Museum collection. Rai Bahadur Sarat Chandra Roy the father of Indian ethnography built a small museum in Ranchi consisting of ethnographic specimens of the aboriginal tribes of Chotanagpur an archaeological finds which he excavated from various Asura sites of Central India. Noted anthropologist Prof. Minendra Nath Basu of University of Calcutta did his Ph.D and published monograph titled Museum Method as early as 1943. Prof. Basu and his son Malay Nath Basu who was also anthropologist by training developed Department of Anthropology Museum in the University of Calcutta. Noted anthropologist and museologist Dr. Sabita Ranjan Sarkar developed Anthropology Gallery of Indian Museum and was also an instrumental in the development of some galleries of Indira Gandhi Rastriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal, Don Bosco Museum, Shillong and so on.

Anthropology Museum of the Department of Anthropology, Delhi University had rich ethnographic collection gifted by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi, former Prime Ministers of India. Eminent anthropologist Dr. Nityananda Patnaik developed an open-air museum under the title “Museum of Man”. This museum has been conceived by the Tribal Research and Training Institute, Bhubaneshwar. The open-air form gives the impression of a living museum with regular folk activities, dance performance and other facets of intangible cultural heritage. Shilpgram, Udaipur of West Zone Cultural Centre and many other Zonal Cultural Centre took the idea either from the said museum or from the Indira Gandhi Rastriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal which is truly an anthropological museum in letter and spirit.

Various Tribal Museums developed by Cultural Research Institute, Kolkata, MLV Tribal Research and Training Institute, Udaipur, Tribal Research Institute, Arunachal Pradesh, Tribal Research Institute of Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahmedabad and so on were developed under the able guidance of noted anthropologist  Dr. Amal Kumar Das, Dr. N.N. Vyas, Dr. A.K.Das, Prof. T.B.Naik and so on. All the tribal museums were nothing but ethnographic or anthropological museums.

P.K.Bhowmick a noted applied cum action anthropologist also developed an ethno-archaeological museum under the name Radh Sanskriti Sangrahalaya. Dr. Arun Kumar Chatterjee former Keeper of anthropology section of Indian Museum and former Chairman of INC, ICOM and many of his colleagues of anthropology discipline developed anthropology and musical instrument gallery of Indian Museum. Dr. Sachin Roy an eminent anthropologist also developed National Museum and was an inspiration for the development of Indira Gandhi Rastriya Manav Sangrahalaya. Another anthropologist of repute Dr. Atul Chandra Bhowmik played a significant role for the development of museum both in the Anthropology department and Museology Department of the University of Calcutta. Dr. N.C. Choudhury, former Deputy Director of Anthropological Survey of India and one of the founder of Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, North Bengal University not only developed the museum of the Anthropological Survey of India in its initial phase but he also wrote a scholarly article titled A note on museum development in India in the Bulletin of Museum Association of Bengal as early as in1962.

 

Development of Anthropology Gallery in the National Museum, New Delhi

The anthropology section was started in the National Museum in 1960 and the gallery was thrown to the public from1961 and Sachin Roy and others played a lead role. The anthropology gallery in the National Museum, New Delhi was largely developed by Prof. A. K. Das who is one of the few vastly experienced museum experienced Curators in the field of Ethnographic and Anthropological Museum. The regional variations of dress and costumes, head-gear, foot-wear, ornaments etc. were partly highlighted in the display and collection in the said gallery. While developing the gallery Prof. Das opted for the object oriented display. Diffusionist idea of well known anthropologist N. K. Bose which was based on his monumental work “Peasant Life in India” which was culminated in the theory of ‘Unity in Diversity’ ( Bose, 1961) formed the basis of collection and display of materials in the Anthropology Gallery of National Museum.

 

Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya (National Museum of Mankind), Bhopal: A True Anthropological Museum in India

The Cultural Activities and Humanities Sub-Commission of the 9^th Conference of Indian National Commission for Co-Operation with UNESCO recommended that “A Museum of Man” depicting the different aspect of cultural stages in India should be setup. The Sub-Commission further recommended that immediate action should be taken to salvage the varied ethnographic materials spread all over the country before they are completely lost. Dr. Grace Morley observed that probably no museum subject in India needs more attention than anthropology. Prof. L. P. Vidyarthi commented that while small countries in Europe have more than one museum of man, in India we do not have a single. In 6^th All India Museum Camp organised by Ministry of Education, Government of India a strong recommendation was made to set up a specialised museum of anthropology at national level.

In response to the request  made from different quarters the Government of India set up National Museum of Man (now renamed as Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya [IGRMS]) during middle of 1970s. Dr. Sachin Roy Keeper (Anthropology) National Museum, New Delhi was appointed as the officer on Special Duty to look after the museum initially. The museum is dedicated for depiction of story of bio-cultural evolution and variations of human kind in time and space. The museum is committed to demonstrate the simultaneous validity of human cultures and plurality of alternatives for articulations. A nucleus office of the museum was opened at New Delhi in March 1977. In 1979 it was shifted to Bhopal acquiring an allotment of 200 acre campus at Shamla hills. The headquarter of IGRMS is located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh while a regional centre is functioning at Mysore, Karnataka since 2002. One of the major mandate of this museum as Sachin Roy observed is to interpret the cultural history of India in the background of its natural wealth.

 At present the Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya (National Museum of Mankind) is spearheading an interactive Museum Movement in India. It aims to celebrate the simultaneous validity of various valuable cultural patterns evolved since time immemorial. The museum is working for national integration, and promotes research and training and inter-institutional networking for salvage and revitalization of vanishing but valuable cultural traditions and highlights the unity and diversity which is the basic concept of Prof. Bose’s monumental work “ Peasant Life in India”. The museum also organizes exhibitions to present an integrated story of biological evolutions and variations. The IGRMS, through its exhibitions and salvage activities, demonstrates the aesthetic qualities of India's traditional life styles; local indigenous knowledge and mores, and caution the people against unprecedented destruction of ecology, environment, local values, customs, etc. Thus IGRMS, Bhopal developed a national museum with true anthropological spirit although its concept was criticized by an eminent scholar of anthropology and museology  (Das, 1989).

 

Conclusions

Many studies have been carried out in the context of anthropological and ethnographic museums of India (Bose, 1943; Roy, 1967, 1972; Choudhury, 1976, Dwibedi, 1980; Morley, 1980; Das, 1989; Bhatnagar,1999; Soni, 2005; Upadhyaya, 2011 and others). But it is the need of  the hour to document history of anthropological and ethnographic museum of India not only in order to develop more and more true anthropological museums in India which is notionally distinct from ethno-archaeological museums or ethnographic and biological anthropological museums. In reality true anthropological museum needs to be developed in a story telling fashion with the development of galleries on biological anthropology, social-cultural anthropology which obviously incorporates ethnography, palaeo-anthropology, prehistoric Archaeology and anthropology of linguistics or linguistic anthropology. In the anthropological museum effort should also be made to integrate four branches of anthropology in a holistic manner and to depict bio-cultural evolution and variation of mankind in time and space. Concept and contribution of some of the noted anthropologists like Elwin (1959 &   1960), Bose ( 1961), Das (1989) and others should also be considered while developing anthropological museums in India.